Teachers often feel that they only have 4 options in dealing with behaviors. Ignore the problem and hope it goes away Refer the student/s to an assistant principal Call the students

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Teachers often feel that they only have 4 options
in dealing with behaviors.Ignore the problem and
hope it goes awayRefer the student/s to an
assistant principalCall the students parents
and ask for helpApply a consequence, such as
detention or some other punishment
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Defining the target behavior

• Observable
• Measurable
• Clear and concise
• Complete

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Procedures for Collecting Data

• Steps in the behavior change process
• select target behavior
• collect and record baseline data
• identify reinforcers
• implement interventions, collect and record
  intervention data
• evaluate the effects of the intervention

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Select the target behavior

• The target behavior is the behavior to be changed
  or modified.
• The target behavior may be an existing behavior
  that needs to be increased or decreased or a
  non-occurring behavior.
• Considerations of target behavior type of
  behavior, frequency of behavior, duration of
  behavior, intensity of behavior

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Hawthorne Effect

• Have already discussed this project with your
  subjects. That means when you collect your
  baseline data that it has been compromised.
• People will do better (or worse) than typical if
  they know. so the baseline data is not valid.

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Factors

• danger to individual or others
• frequency
• duration
• behavior will produce higher level of
  reinforcement for individual than other behaviors
• impact of behavior on skill development
• if learning the behavior will reduce the negative
  attention that the individual receives
• if learning the behavior will increase
  reinforcement for others in the individuals
  environment
• difficulty (time and energy) to be expended to
  change behavior
• cost involved in changing behavior

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Order of priorities

• Behaviors that risk the childs life
• Behaviors that risk the childs continuing to
  live with the family
• Behaviors that limit the childs participation in
  special education
• Behaviors that limit the childs adaptation to
  the community outside home and school

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Infrequent behaviors

• Some behaviors occur so infrequently that they do
  not require a formal program
• for example
• annual 2 minute tantrum
• occasional reading reversal
• infrequent falling out of his seat
• monthly bus-missing behavior

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Behavior change directions

• Increase
• group participation, in-seat behavior,
  interactions with peers, typing skills, reading
  rate, number skills, study skills

• Decrease
• verbal outbursts, inattentiveness, use of four
  letter words, food intake, smoking, talking
  during study period, spelling errors

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Target behavior selection

• select only one behavior
• analyze behavior for frequency, duration,
  intensity and type
• is behavior to be decreased or increased
  (direction of behavior change)
• is the behavior observable
• is the behavior measurable in numeric terms
• describe the behavior in precise, descriptive
  terminology

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Ask yourself?

• Can you count the number of times the behavior
  has occurred in a given amount of time?
• Can you describe the target behavior so that
  someone who is unfamiliar with what you are doing
  will know exactly what to look for?
• Have you broken down the behavior down to its
  smallest components
• Is the definition valid? Can every instance of
  the behavior be captured? Is the definition
  reliable? Can two or more observers record the
  same occurrences and non-occurrences of the
  behavior?

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Behavioral Dimensions

• FREQUENCY
• The number of times a behavior occurs.
• When determining frequency of occurrence of a
  behavior, we count the number of times the
  behavior occurs within an observation period.

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• RATE
• frequency expressed in ratio with time
• can compare frequency data in non-standardized
  observation periods or opportunities to respond.
• Rate is calculated by dividing the number of
  times a behavior occurred by the length of the
  observation period.

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• Duration
• a measurement of how long a behavior lasts
• Duration is important when the concern is not the
  number of times a behavior occurs but how long

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• Latency
• length of time between instructions to perform it
  and the occurrence of the behavior
• Latency is relevant when the concern is not how
  long it takes a student to do something, but how
  long it takes to begin to do it

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• Topography
• what the behavior looks like
• topography describes a behaviors complexity or
  its motor components.
• It may involve many behaviors performed together.

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• Force
• the intensity of the behavior

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• Locus
• describes where it occurs, either in the
  environment, or on the individuals body.
• Locus describes the target of the behavior or
  where in the environment the behavior is taking
  place

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• Methods of obtaining information
• Interviewing the student
• Interviewing others
• Testing the student
• Directly observing the student

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Issues in assessment

• What people say vs. what they do
• Tolerance levels
• Ecological factors
• Reactivity to assessment

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Permanent Product

• Recording tangible items or environmental effects
  that result from a behavior for example written
  academic work

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Event recording

• Recording a tally or frequency count of behavior
  as it occurs within an observation period an
  observational recording procedure

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Interval recording

• An observational recording system in which an
  observation period is divided into a number of
  short intervals. The observer counts the number
  of intervals when the behavior occurs

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Time sampling

• An observational recording system in which an
  observation period is divided into equal
  intervals the target behavior is observed at the
  end of each interval

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Duration

• Recording the amount of time between the
  initiation of a response and its conclusion an
  observational recording procedure

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Latency

• Recording the amount of time between the
  presentation of the cue and the initiation of a
  response.

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FACTORS

• Reactivity - presence of an observer
• Observer drift - change the stringency of
  operational definitions
• Complexity - observational coding system
• Expectancy - bias interpretation of results

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Graphing Data

• Graphs should be simple and uncluttered
• Purposes for graphs
• means for organization
• formative summative program evaluation
• vehicle for communication
• commonly used to display data in a serial manner
  across duration of instruction or intervention

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Simple Line Graph

• Set of boundaries
• axes
• x-axis - abscissa, horizontal
• y-axis - ordinate, vertical
• Axes are drawn in a ratio of 23
• If y 2, then x 3

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Abscissa

• The x-axis serves as the boundary of the graph.
• Shows how frequently data were collected during
  the period represented on the graph.
• The right boundary of the graph ends at the last
  session.
• Horizontal line bottom boundary

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Ordinate

• Vertical line serves as the left-hand boundary of
  the graph.
• The label identifies the target behavior and kind
  of data that is being reported.

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Simple line graph
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Can you label the following parts ?

• Abscissa
• Ordinate
• Abscissa label
• Ordinate label
• Ordinate scale
• Data point
• Data path

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Simple line graph
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Definitions

• Ordinate scale - scale on the y axis, used to
  record the performance of the target behavior,
  ALWAYS begins with zero
• Scale break
• - when the ordinate scale is not continuous, it
  is permissible to begin the scale at zero, draw
  two horizontal lines between the first and second
  lines on the graph paper, label the 2nd line
  50.

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Data Point

• Each data point is individually plotted. The
  placement or value does not affect the placement
  or value of the next data point.
• Small geometric forms, such as circles, squares,
  or triangles are used to represent the
  occurrences of the target behavior during a
  specific time segment.

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Data Path

• When a solid line is drawn connecting the data
  points, it forms the data path.
• A single geometric shape is used to represent
  each point on a single data path.
• When more than one path is represented - each
  path is represented by a different geometric
  shape.
• No more than 3 different paths should be plotted
  on a single graph.
• Continuity break- 2 parallel hash marks are
  placed on the data path to indicate a break in
  the sequence of the intervention

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Student identification

• the name of the student(s) is placed in a box in
  the bottom right hand corner of the page of the
  graph.

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Permanent Product Data

• number of items or percentage of terms resulting
  from behavior
• of correct responses can be calculated by
  dividing the number of correct responses by the
  total number of responses and multiplying the
  result by 100.
• Ex. of correctly spelled words, of math
  problems completed

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Event Data

• May be recorded as
• of occurrences of a behavior if the amount of
  time is consistent across sessions
• of correct or a if there are a consistent
  of opportunities to respond
• a correct if the of opportunities to respond
  varies

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Rate Data

• Required when concerned about accuracy and speed
• Rate data reflect fluency of performance and
  allow judgements about the development of
  proficiency.
• If the responding varies from session to session,
  rate must be calculated so that the data can be
  compared.
• See figure 5-6, p. 149

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Interval and Time Sampling

• Reported as the number or percent of total
  observed intervals during which the behavior
  occurs (usually reported as ).
• Interval data is usually divided into short
  segments of time, if the targeted behavior
  occurred any time within that interval, it is
  counted.
• Time sampling data is divided into periods of
  time, and behaviors are counted if they occur at
  the end of the interval.

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Duration Data

• Reported as the number of minutes or seconds it
  takes a student to complete a behavior or as how
  much of a specified period of time a student
  spent engaging in a particular behavior.

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Latency

• Reported as the number of minutes or seconds that
  elapse before a student initiates a behavior
  following a request for the behavior to be
  performed or for a natural occasion for its
  performance to occur.

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Conditions

• Phases of an intervention during which different
  approaches or techniques are used.
• Baseline current level of behavior
• Intervention by drawing a dashed line between
  the last session of one condition and the
  beginning of another.
• Data points are not connected across conditions.

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Vertical dashed line

• runs from the top of the graph to the bottom of
  the graph
• this line is drawn between the last session of
  one condition and the first session of the next
• remember data points are not connected across
  conditions
• a brief descriptive condition label is placed
  above the data path for each condition

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Cumulative graphs

• presents an additive view of a behavior across
  sessions, providing a count of the total number
  of responses.
• a steep slope indicates rapid responding, a
  gradual slope indicates slow responding, and a
  plateau or straight line indicates not
  responding,

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Cumulative graphs

• provides a continuous line with a slope that
  indicates the rate of responding
• steep slope - indicates rapid responding
• gradual slope - indicates slow responding
• plateau - indicates no responding (straight line)

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Baseline data

• Joshuas hitting behavior
• Time M T W T F Total
• 9-910 / / / / 4
• 930-40 / / // / / 6
• 10-1010 // /// / // / 9
• 1030-40 /// / //// /// // 13
• Day total 7 6 7 7 5

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Joshua baseline data
Frequency of hitting behavior
Baseline
Intervention
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Joshua baseline data
Frequency of hitting behavior
Baseline
Intervention
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Bar graph - histogram

• a bar graph uses vertical bars rather than data
  points and connecting lines to indicates
  performance
• each vertical bar represents one observation
  period
• height corresponds with a performance value on
  the ordinate
• summarize student performance data

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Trend lines - step 1

• Divide the number of data points in half by
  drawing a vertical line down the graph

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Line is drawn between sessions 5 6
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Trend lines - step 2

• On the left half of the graph, find the
  mid-session and draw a vertical line

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Line is drawn at session 3
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Trend lines - step 3

• On the left half of the graph, find the
  mid-performance point and draw a horizontal line.

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Draw line at mid-performance point
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Trend lines - step 4

• Repeat steps of 2 and 3 on the right half of the
  graph.

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Trend lines - step 5

• Draw a line connecting the intersections of both
  halves of the graph.
• THIS IS THE TREND LINE

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Trend line
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Single Subject Designs

• Review
• x-axis
• y-axis
• phase change line
• phase labels
• data points
• data path (trend line)
• figure legend

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Purpose of single subject designs

• to demonstrate experimental control
• to show intervention effects

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Aspects of single subject designs

• Comparisons made between conditions
• must have an intervention to use single subject
  design
• more than one person or group can be included in
  the intervention

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Types of single subject designs

• AB
• ABAB or reversal
• Multiple baseline
• across settings
• across subjects
• across behaviors

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Variable

• Refers to any number of factors involved in
  research
• dependent variables-behavior being targeted for
  change
• independent variable-intervention being used to
  change behavior
• Functional relationship - trying to demonstrate a
  cause-effect relationship between dependent and
  independent variables

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Baseline data

• Quantitative data collected before the behavior
  change intervention has been implemented.
• Process of collecting pre-intervention or
  baseline data can be referred to as a functional
  assessment
• Baseline data should be stable (provides a
  representative sample)

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Functional behavioral assessment

• Identification of antecedent and consequent
  events, temporarily contiguous to the
  behavior,which occasion and maintain the behavior
• Baseline data provide the foundation on which the
  behavior change process is established.

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Trend

• Indication of direction in the performance of the
  behavior
• usually 3 successive data points in the same
  direction
• no trend
• increasing trend
• decreasing trend

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Experimental Control

• Experimental control - changes in the dependent
  variable are related to manipulations of the
  independent variable
• Confounding variables - conditions that are not
  controlled by the teacher

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AB design

• Two phases - baseline and intervention
• weakest of all designs
• does not provide for replication
• simple
• quick and uncomplicated
• does not demonstrate confidence in determination
  of a functional relationship

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ABAB (reversal)

• Phases - baseline, intervention, baseline 2,
  intervention2
• simple allows for precise analysis
• withdrawal of an effective intervention

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Changing criterion design

• Two phases - baseline and intervention
• intervention phase has sub-phases
• systematic changing of performance (increase or
  decrease) criterion
• each intervention sub phase is separated on the
  graphic display by a dashed line
• no need to withdraw a successful intervention

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Multiple baseline design

• Simultaneous analysis of more than dependent
  variable.
• Page 186 in your text looks at multiple baselines
  across behaviors, individuals or settings.
• Same scale of measurement should be used across
  all.

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Advantages/Disadvantages

• Can establish a functional relationship without
  withdrawing the intervention
• can be difficult to control confounding variables
  across settings, behaviors or students.

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Alternating Treatments

• Allows comparison of the effectiveness of more
  than one treatment or intervention on a single
  subject
• ABBABAAB, BAC, can be sequentially in blocks
• can provide accurate and rapid feedback
• answers the question which method is most
  effective

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Changing conditions

• Interventions are introduced consecutively
• ABC design
• can only give an indication of the effectiveness
• no functional relationship can be established