Other Galaxies: Hubble supersedes Shapley

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Other Galaxies Hubble supersedes Shapley

• Edwin Hubble identified single stars in the
  Andromeda nebula (turning it into a galaxy)
• Measured the distance to Andromeda to be 1
  million Ly (modern value 2.2 mill. Ly)
• Conclusion it is 20 times more distant than the
  milky ways radius ? Extragalacticity!
• ? Shapleys theory falsified!

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Q How many galaxies are there?

• Hubble Deep Field Project
• 100 hour exposures over 10 days
• Covered an area of the sky about 1/100 the size
  of the full moon
• Probably about 100 billion galaxies visible to us!

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• About 1,500 galaxies in this patch alone
• Angular size 2 minutes of arc

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Other Galaxies

• there are 100 billion galaxies in the
  observable Universe
• measure distances to other galaxies using the
  period-luminosity relationship for Cepheid
  variables
• Type I supernovae also used to measure distances
• Predictable luminosity a standard candle
• Other galaxies are quite distant
• Andromeda (M31), a nearby (spiral) galaxy, is 2
  million light-years away and comparable in size
  to Milky Way
• Island universes in their own right

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Hubble Classification Scheme

• Edwin Hubble (1924) grouped galaxies into four
  basic types
• Spiral
• Barred spiral
• Elliptical
• Irregular
• There are sub-categories as well

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Spirals (S)

• All have disks, bulges, and halos
• Type Sa large bulge, tightly wrapped, almost
  circular spiral arms
• Type Sb smaller bulge, more open spiral arms
• Type Sc smallest bulge, loose, poorly defined
  spiral arms

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Barred Spirals (SB)

• Possess an elongated bar of stars and
  interstellar mater passing through the center

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Elliptical (E)

• No spiral arms or clear internal structure
• Essentially all halo
• Vary in size from giant to dwarf
• Further classified according to how circular they
  are (E0E7)

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S0/SB0

• Intermediate between E7 and Sa
• Ellipticals with a bulge and thin disk, but no
  spiral arms

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Q How do we know we live in a Spiral Galaxy?

• After correcting for absorption by dust, it is
  possible to plot location of O- and B- (hot young
  stars) which tend to be concentrated in the
  spiral arms
• Radio frequency observations reveal the
  distribution of hydrogen (atomic) and molecular
  clouds
• Evidence for
• galactic bulge
• spiral arms

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Rotation of the Galaxy

• Stars near the center rotate faster those near
  the edges rotate slower (Kepler)
• The Sun revolves at about 250 km/sec around the
  center
• Takes 200-250 million years to orbit the galaxy
  a galactic year

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How do spiral arms persist?

• ? Why dont the curl up?

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Spiral Density Waves

• A spiral compression wave (a shock wave) moves
  through the Galaxy
• Triggers star formation in the spiral arms
• Explains why we see many young hot stars in the
  spiral arms

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The Mass of the Galaxy

• Can be determined using Keplers 3rd Law
• Solar System the orbital velocities of planets
  determined by mass of Sun
• Galaxy orbital velocities of stars are
  determined by total mass of the galaxy contained
  within that stars orbit
• Two key results
• large mass contained in a very small volume at
  center of our Galaxy
• Much of the mass of the Galaxy is not observed
• consists neither of stars, nor of gas or dust
• extends far beyond visible part of our galaxy
  (dark halo)

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Galaxy Masses

• Rotation curves of spiral galaxies comparable to
  milky way
• Masses vary greatly

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The Missing Mass Problem

• Dark Matter is dark at all wavelengths, not just
  visible light
• The Universe as a whole consists of up to 25 of
  Dark Matter! ? Strange!
• What is it?
• Brown dwarfs?
• Black dwarfs?
• Black holes?
• Neutrinos?
• Other exotic subatomic particles?
• Actually Most of the universe (70) consists of
  Dark Energy ? Even stranger!

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Missing Mass Problem
Actual data
Hypothetical Keplerian motion

• Keplerian Motion more distance from center ?
  less gravitational pull ? slower rotational speed

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Galaxy Formation

• Not very well understood
• More complicated than stellar formation, and
  harder to observe
• Formation of galaxies begins after Big Bang
• Different than star formation because galaxies
  may collide and merge

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Galaxy Formation

• Galaxies are probably built up by mergers
• Contrast to break up of clouds in star formation
• Our own Milky Way is eating up the neighboring
  Sagittarius Dwarf Galaxy

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Galaxy Mergers

• Start with high density of small proto-galaxies
• Galaxies merge and turn into bigger galaxies

Actual photo (HST) lots of small galaxies
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Galaxy Interaction

• Galaxy Collision NGC2207 vs. IC2163

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The Tully-Fisher Relation

• A relation between the rotation speed of a spiral
  galaxy and its luminosity
• The more mass a galaxy has ?the brighter it is ?
  the faster it rotates ? the wider the spectral
  lines are
• Measuring rotation speed allows us to estimate
  luminosity comparing to observed (apparent)
  brightness then tells us the distance

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Beyond the Galactic Scale Clusters of Galaxies

• The Local Group The Virgo Cluster

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Superclusters
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Beyond Superclusters

• Strings, filaments, voids
• Reflect structure of the universe close to the
  Big Bang
• Largest known structure the Great Wall (70 Mpc ?
  200 Mpc!)

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Cosmology

• The part of astronomy (and astrophysics) that
  deals with the greatest structures in the
  universe and the evolution of the universe
  itself!

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Cosmologically relevant Questions

• What is in the universe?
• How do these things interact?
• How does the universe change in time?
• Is there a beginning?
• Is there an end?

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Everything is moving away from us!

• Measure spectrum of galaxies and compare to
  laboratory measurement
• lines are shifted towards red
• This is the Doppler effect Red-shifted objects
  are moving away from us

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Hubbles Law

• The final rung on the cosmic distance ladder
• Hubbles observations (1920s)
• Light from distant galaxies is red-shifted
• The more distant the galaxy, the greater the
  red-shift
• Interpretation
• Galaxies are moving away from us
• More distant galaxies are moving faster
• The universe is expanding, carrying the galaxies
  with it!

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Doppler Shifts of Galaxies
Hubble, 1929
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Hubbles Law
Velocity H0 ? Distance Distance Velocity
/H0

• H0 (65 15) km/sec/Mpc is Hubbles constant
• Compare to distance velocity ? time
• Appears the universe exploded from a single
  point in the past the Big Bang
• Age of the universe is 1/H0 or about 14 billion
  years

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The Expanding Universe

• Except for a few nearby galaxies (like
  Andromeda), all the galaxies are seen to be
  moving away from us
• Generally, the recession speed of a galaxy is
  proportional to its distance from us that is, a
  galaxy thats twice as far away is moving twice
  as fast (aside from local motions within galaxy
  clusters)

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The Expanding Universe

• This expansion pattern (speed proportional to
  distance) actually implies that galaxies are all
  moving away from each other

Milky Way
Expansion
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The Expanding Universe

• This expansion pattern (speed proportional to
  distance) actually implies that galaxies are all
  moving away from each other

Milky Way
Expansion
Twice as far away, so moves twice as fast
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The Expanding Universe

• This expansion pattern (speed proportional to
  distance) actually implies that galaxies are all
  moving away from each other

Start
A while later
2d
d
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The Expanding Universe

• Each galaxy sees the others moving away with the
  same pattern (further ? faster)
• As though the galaxies ride on a rubber band that
  is being stretched!

Start
A while later
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The Expanding Universe

• In three dimensions, imagine the galaxies are
  raisins in an expanding loaf of bread

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The Expanding Universe

• Appears the universe exploded from a state in
  which matter was extremely dense and hot the
  Big Bang
• Where did the expansion begin? Everywhere!
• Every galaxy sees the others receding from it
  there is no special point (center)

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Cosmological Red-Shift

• Not really a Doppler effect
• Space itself is being stretched between galaxies