Perceptual Process

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Perceptual Process

• We perceive through our senses feeling,
  hearing, seeing, smelling, tasting
• What affects the way we perceive
• Characteristics of the object like size,
  intensity, novelty, repetition etc.
• Characteristics of the context or situation like
  time, work setting, social setting
• Characteristics of the perceiver like attitudes,
  motives, interests, biases, expectations

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Attributions

• A perceptual process whereby observers decide
  what caused the behavior of another person.
• Causes of peoples behavior are said to be either
  internal to the person (personality, emotions,
  motives, ability) or external of the person
  (other people, the situation, luck or chance).

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Attribution Theory

• As we observe others behavior we can make either
  an
• Internal Attribution
• External Attribution

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Kelleys Attribution Rules

• Consistency the extent to which the person
  behaves in the same manner on other occasions
  when faced with the same situations. Does the
  person respond the same way over time? If so,
  likely to make an internal attribution

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Attribution Rules

• Distinctiveness the extent to which the person
  acts in the same manner in different situations.
  Is the behavior unusual or distinctive? If so,
  likely to make an external attribution

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Attribution Rules

• Consensus the extent to which others, faced
  with the same situation, behave in manner similar
  to the person perceived. Is everyone who is
  faced with a similar situation responding in the
  same way? If so, likely to make an external
  attribution

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Attribution Rules

• Internal Attribution is made when
• High consistency the observed person behaved
  this way in the past (consistent over time)
• Low distinctiveness the observed person behaves
  like this in different situations
• Low consensus other people dont behave this
  way in this situation

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Attribution Rules

• External Attribution is made when
• Low consistency the observed persons behavior
  is not consistent over time
• High distinctiveness the observed persons
  behavior is unusual or distinctive
• High consensus other people are behaving this
  way in the same situation

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Attribution Example 1

• You are the accounting manager at a manufacturing
  plant and observe, Bob, one of your accountants,
  fails to turn in this months budget report on
  time. Using the attribution rules, what
  questions might you ask yourself?

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Attribution Example 1 Cont

• Have other employees also turned in their reports
  late? Or, how often do other people act this way
  in this situation? Consensus
• Has Bob turned in other reports late or just this
  one? Or, how often does he act this way
  regarding other reports? Distinctiveness
• Has Bob turned in this budget report late in past
  months? Or, how often has he acted this way in
  the past? Consistency

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Attribution Example 1 Cont

• External Attribution Many employees were late
  turning in their monthly reports (high
  consensus) Bob was late turning in this report
  but not other ones or he didnt act this way in
  other situations (high distinctiveness) and hes
  usually not late turning in this budget report or
  hasnt been in the past (low consistency)

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Attribution Example 2

• You are the manager of HR in a large firm and an
  employee visits your office complaining about his
  supervisors management practices and the way he
  interacts with employees. You are trying to
  decide whether or not the employees complaints
  seem reasonable enough to investigate. Using the
  Attribution rules, what questions might you ask
  yourself?

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Attribution Example 2 Cont

• Have other employees also complained? Consensus
• Does the employee complain about everything and
  all supervisors or just this one?
  Distinctiveness
• Has this employee complained about this before or
  is this the first time? Consistency

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Attribution Example 2 Cont

• Internal Attribution No one else has complained
  (low consensus) this employee complains about
  everything and everyone ( low distinctiveness)
  and has done so now and in the past (high
  consistency)

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Attribution Errors

• Fundamental Attribution Error
• Underestimating the impact of environmental
  factors when observing undesirable behaviors.
  Attributing behavior of other people to internal
  factors (their motivation/ability)
• Self-Serving Bias
• Attributing our successes to internal factors and
  our failures to external factors

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Other Perceptual Errors or Biases

• Selective Perception people selectively
  interpret what they see on the basis of their
  interests, background, experience, and attitudes
• Halo Effect drawing a general impression about
  an individual on the basis of a single
  characteristic
• Projection similar to me. Attributing ones
  own characteristics to other people
• Stereotyping judging someone based on your
  perceptions of the group to which he or she
  belongs

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Implications of Attributions on Decision Making

• Generally speaking, management tends to
  disproportionately attribute employees behavior
  to internal causes
• Managers tend to be more strict and often punish
  employees more severely when they attribute poor
  performance to a lack of effort or motivation

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Implications Cont

• When poor performance is attributed to a lack of
  ability, managers tend to propose training or
  transfer rather than disciplinary actions
• Employees often receive larger pay increases or
  bonuses when good performance is attributed to
  the employees ability rather than external
  factors

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Applications to Organizations

• Employment Interview
• Performance Appraisal
• Decision Making interpretation and evaluation
  of information