THE WORLD IN TRANSITION

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CHAPTER 37
THE WORLD IN
TRANSITION
By Shaunna- Kay Beckford World History Mr.
Linebarger
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CONTENTS

• SECTION 1- The End of the Cold
• SECTION2- The Crumbling
• SECTION 3- Toward A European Union
• SECTION 4- National and Ethnic Conflict
• SECTION 5- Global Interdependence
  
  

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Section 1- THE END OF THE COLD WAR

• Key terms
• Trade deficits, budget deficit, glasnost,
  perestroika, privatization
• People to Meet
• Ronald Reagan, George Bush, Bill Clinton,
  Madeleine Albright, Mikhail Gorbachev, Boris,
  Yeltsin.
• Objective
• To find out what developments changed superpower
  relationships by the mid- 1990s.

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THE END OF THE COLD WAR

• INTRODUCTION
• In the early 1980s, cold war tensions between the
  United States and the Soviet
• Increased dramatically. However, the world
  had changed since the 1950s when the
• superpowers had competed alone in the arena
  of the world affairs. Now other blocs of nations,
  with their own separated concerns, were
  influencing global developments. In addition, the
  two superpowers faced growing political and
  economical problems at home. Together, domestic
  and international changes would lead to the end
  of the cold war.

5
THE END OF THE COLD WAR

• The United States
• Lost its global dominance on the market.
• They changed from a lending nation to a borrowing
  nation.
• They experienced trade deficits, buying more from
  foreign nations than it sold in foreign markets
  .
• A republican, Ronald Regan, won presidency in
  1980 and promised to reduce the budget deficit,
  or difference between the amount of money the
  government collects in revenues and what it
  spends.
• President Reagan cut spending on social programs
  and lowered taxes to stimulate econ0omic growth.
• During his two terms, inflation slowed and the
  economy improved.
• President R. Reagan and his successor, George
  Bush, pushed the budget deficit to new heights by
  increased military spending.

6
THE END OF THECOLD WAR contd.

• THE UNITED STATES contd.
• In 1992, Democratic Bill Clinton was elected
  president.
• He supported moderate deficit reduction and
  increase spending.
• President Clinton and Congress worked out a plan
  to balance the budget and to move people from
  welfare to jobs.
• Meanwhile new technology and increased efficiency
  boosted the American economy.
• In 1998, the House of Representatives determined
  that Clinton had lied under oath and had
  obstructed justice in trying to cover improper
  behavior.
• This resulted in the passing of two articles of
  impeachment on President Clinton.
• In the early 1980s, tensions heightened between
  the United States and the Soviet Union.

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THE END OF THECOLD WAR contd.

• THE UNITED STATES contd.
• The soviet union collapsed in 1991.
• George Bush and Bill Clinton supported the growth
  of democracy in Russia and other former Communist
  nations.
• The United States sought to develop a new foreign
  policy for the postwar in 1990s.
• Cuts were made in defense spending, and both Bush
  and Clinton generally conducted foreign policy
  through diplomacy or by using economic pressures.
• The United States joined the multinational
  military operations in trouble spots such as
  Haiti, Persian Gulf, Somalia, and the Balkans.
• Madeleine Albright became the first woman to
  serve as Secretary of State in 1997.

8
THE END OF THE COLD WAR contd.

• THE UNITED STATES contd.
• She supported United States efforts to strengthen
  democracy in Europe, advance peace in the Middle
  East and established effective partnerships with
  Latin American and Asian countries.
• Meanwhile in America, the income gap between the
  rich and the poor became wider in1996 than any
  other time since the 1930s.
• During this time they faced crime and violence.
• A federal office was bombed in Oklahoma City in
  1995 claiming the life of 168 people.
• There was an increased risk of AIDS in 1990s.
• Immigration became a pressing issue in 1990s,
  when economic and political ills around the world
  brought a new tide of immigrants to the United
  States.
• Many Americans blamed increased immigration for
  the loss of jobs and higher taxes.
• The congress passed legislation that improved new
  restrictions on both legal and illegal
  immigrants.

9
PICTURES OF UNITED STATES FORMER PRESIDENTS
President Bill Clinton
President Ronald Reagan
President George Bush
10
THE END OF THE COLD WAR contd

• Gorbachevs USSR
• Assumed power in 1985.
• Permit freedom of expression for Soviet citizens
  under his policy of glasnost (meaning openness).
• He pushed for the rebuilding of the Soviet
  economy, a policy the Soviets called perestroika.

Gorbachev met with U.S. President Ronald Reagan
in the late 1980s.
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THE END OF THE COLD WAR contd.

• Gorbachevs USSR contd.
• Allowed more decision making at local level.
• He negotiate with president Reagan for the
  reduction of arms.
• Gorbachev made large concessions to settle
  long-stalled treaty negotiations.
• He offered too cancel nuclear tests and to
  withdraw Soviet missiles from Eastern Europe.
• To further ease global tensions, he withdrew
  troops from Afghanistan.
• He encouraged Eastern European Communist leaders
  to carry out reforms.
• His policies inspired discontented majorities in
  these repressed countries.

12
THE END OF THE COLD WAR contd.

• Gorbachevs USSR contd.
• Scattered demands for democracy grew into a wave
  of anti-Communist protest that eventually brought
  down the Iron Curtain.
• He became popular in the Western countries
  because of his outlook and friendly personality.
• However, he was increasingly criticized.
• At the same time, economic problems continued,
  the conservative bureaucracy and military
  resisted change, fearing the loss of jobs and the
  weakening of the Soviet might.
• To maintain control he zigzagged reformist and
  hard line positions, creating uncertainty
  throughout government and business.
• By 1990, perestroikas slow pace had brought
  forward rivals to Gorbachevs leadership.

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THE END OF THE COLD WAR contd.

• Gorbachevs USSR contd.
• the most powerful of these challengers was Boris
  Yeltsin, a former Gorbachev ally.
• He wanted to increase the pace of reforms.
• He won the presidency of the Russian Republic by
  taking the side of the people.
• He had a stronger base of support than Gorbachev
  did.
• The Soviet Breakup
• While Gorbachev faced mounting opposition from
  political rivals, nationalist and ethnic unrest
  began to sweep the Soviet Union.
• The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR)
  was a union of 15 separate republics, or states.

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THE END OF THE COLD WAR contd.

• The Soviet Breakup contd.
• The largest was Russia, which include the Soviet
  capital Moscow.
• The non- Russians republics resented the
  dominance of the Russians over their affairs.
• A strong Soviet secret police and army had kept
  opposition and nationalist groups under control
  but in the relaxed atmosphere of glasnost they
  resurfaced.
• There were strong demands for self rule
  throughout the republic and in 1990, Latvia,
  Lithuania, and Estonia became the first republic
  to declare independence.
• Gorbachev began a roll back of glasnost in the
  early 1990s and adopted new hard-line positions
  to appease the conservatives who feared the
  breakup of the Soviet Union.

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THE END OF THE COLD WAR contd.

• The Soviet Breakup contd.
• His reform-mined political aides resigned in
  protest, and Soviet citizens, led by Yeltsin,
  called for Gorbachev to step down.
• Hard-liners in the military and secret police
  staged a coup to remove Gorbachev from power and
  restore the old order.
• Yeltsin became the real leader of the Soviet
  Union.
• Communist party and secret police swept the land,
  the party dissolved, stature of party leaders
  were torn down, and many cities return to their
  pre-1917 names (example Leningrad changed back to
  its original name St. Petersburg.

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THE END OF THE COLD WAR contd.

• Independent Republics
• All Soviet republics announced their independence
  from the Soviet Union in late September.
• In December 1991, the three Slavic republics-
  Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus- announced the
  formation of the Commonwealth of Independent
  States (CIS), a loose association of republics to
  take the place of the Soviet Union.
• As a result, Gorbachev resigned his presidency.
• After the breakup of the Soviet Union, Yeltsin
  moved to ensure the security of the Soviet
  nuclear arsenal.
• He and the leaders of the other republics holding
  nuclear weapons- Ukraine, Belarus, and
  Kazakhstan- agreed that Russia would assume
  command of the weapons. Ukraine later declared
  itself a nuclear-free zone and dismantled its
  arsenal of nuclear warheads.
• The United States and Russia agreed on a mutual
  reduction in the number of nuclear weapons that
  they each had. By 1997, they no longer targeted
  nuclear warheads at each other.

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THE END OF THE COLD WAR contd.

• Independent Republics contd.
• At home Yeltsin introduced reforms to move
  Russias economy from government control to free
  enterprise.
• These included removing price controls, closing
  inefficient factories, and promoting
  privatization, the setting up of privately owned
  businesses.
• The result was an increase in both prices and
  unemployment, causing much discontent.
• By the mid-1990s, some progress had been made in
  stabilizing prices, and new businesses and a new
  middle class were growing in the former Soviet
  republics.
• In Russia, production fell sharply and the
  government lacked funds to meet its obligations
  due to mismanagement, corruption, and difficulty
  in collecting taxes.
• Russia also faced social problems. Workers, the
  elderly, and the poor suffered economic
  hardships. Street violence, organized crime, and
  ethnic unrest increased public fears about the
  collapse of law and order. Pollution caused the
  Soviet-era industrialization presented a major
  health risk.
• Nationalist and Communist in Russia tried to
  block Yeltsins reforms.
• In 1996, he defeated his Communist rival in
  presidential elections.

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Section 2-THE CRUMBLING WALL

• Key terms
• Autonomy
• People to Meet
• Pope Paul John II, Lech Walesa, Nicolae
  Ceausescu, Vaclav Havel, Aleksander Kwasniewski,
  Slobodan Milosevic
• Objective
• To find out how did the Soviet Communist controls
  come to an end in Eastern Europe.

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THE CRUMBLING WALL

• Introduction
• During the 1980s, the Communist nations of
  Eastern Europe faced massive problems. Their
  government- controlled economies failed to
  produce high quality consumer goods and had
  fallen far behind the economies of the West. When
  the Soviet Union began to change and signaled
  that it would not object to changes in Eastern
  Europe, the Communist systems collapsed.

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THE CRUMBLING WALL contd.

• The rise of Solidarity
• In Poland, the antigovernment movement had
  received a strong boost in 1978, when the Roman
  Catholic Church selected a Polish church leader,
  Karol Wojtyla as its pope.
• The election of Pope Paul John II, a staunch
  anti-Communist, inspired confidence among the
  largely Catholic Poles and enabled them to take
  further steps toward liberation from Communist
  control.
• In 1980 Polish workers in Baltic port of Gdansk
  organized a trade union called Solidarity. Lech
  Walesa was the founder and leader of Solidarity.
  It backed up demands for better living and
  working conditions with strikes.

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THE CRUMBLING WALL contd.

• The rise of Solidarity
• The strike led by Walesa at the Gdansk shipyards
  forced the Polish government to recognize
  Solidarity in 1980.
• Under Walesas leadership, Solidarity demanded
  free elections and a voice for workers in forming
  government policy. The Polish government
  responded by demanding that strikes and other
  antistate activities to end. under pressure
  from the Soviet Union, Polish authorities
  outlawed the union 16 months later and jailed
  most of its leaders.
• Walesa became a symbol of freedom and an
  international hero. He was awarded the Nobel
  Peace Prize in 1983.

Picture of Lech Walesa
Picture of Lenin shipyard in Gdanska
Picture of Pope John Paul II
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THE CRUMBLING WALL contd.

• 1989 A Year of Miracles
• By the late 1980s, reduction production,
  decreases in labor productivity, high inflation,
  and trade deficits had virtually paralyzed the
  economies of Eastern Europe.
• This caused fewer goods and higher prices.
• The highly centralized economies, out of touch
  with consumer needs, caused widespread food
  shortages.
• Dissent against Communist reached its peek in
  1989.
• In a speech in 1989, Gorbachev announced that he
  had ordered a cut back of 500,000 troops in the
  Soviet army.
• The troops had been put there to keep the Soviet
  satellites in line.
• In march he pledged not to interfere with
  democratic reforms in Hungary.
• He decided that most Eastern-bloc governments-
  which locked popular support- would continue to
  provoked opposition.
• In 1989 Communist governments in Eastern Europe
  crumbled under the weight of staggering problems.
  

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THE CRUMBLING WALL contd.

• 1989 A Year of Miracles contd.
• As economic and political instability increased,
  Communist regimes either resigned or were
  overturned in Eastern Germany, Czechoslovakia,
  Hungary, Poland, Romania, and Bulgaria.
• Throughout this remarkable year of 1989,
  Gorbachev astounded the world by not only
  refusing to intervene in democratic uprisings,
  but actually encouraging reform in the region.
• In mid-1989 Hungary, which had been quietly
  moving toward democratic reform for more than a
  decade, opened its sealed borders. A flood of
  East German refugees poured through this new
  hole in the Iron Curtain, seeking sanctuary in
  the West. The exodus called attention to the
  failed government of East Germanys leader, Erich
  Honecker.

Eric Honecker
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THE CRUMBLING WALL contd. 1989 A Year of
Miracles contd.

• Amid mass demonstrations and calls for democratic
  reform, Honeckers government was toppled in
  October and replaced by a more moderate Communist
  administration.
• The government lifted all travel restrictions
  between East and West.
• On the November 9, 1989, the famous Gate at
  Berlin Wall was opened.
• East and West Germans rushed throughout the night
  to see the wall. They swarmed over the wall,
  dancing and singing atop it. The next days people
  attacked the wall with picks and shovels, opening
  huge holes. As the gats opened, people got a
  chance to reunite with families and friends.

The Wall of Berlin
People celebrating after the gate was opened.
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THE CRUMBLING WALL contd.

• 1989 A Year of Miracles contd.
• Nicolae Ceausescu ruled Romania for 24 years.
• His methods had become increasingly brutal over
  the years, and his reaction to freedom protests
  in his country was violent.
• Hundred were killed before the Romanians revolted
  and ousted the dictator in December 1989.
• Ceausescu and his wife, Elena, were tried and
  shot.
• Throughout Europe and the West, crowds celebrated
  the fall of Ceausescu. They were also celebrating
  the end of the Soviet control in Eastern Europe
  and, in a larger sense, the end of the cold war.
  

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THE CRUMBLING WALL contd.

• New Leaders in a New Age
• Following the downfall of Communist governments,
  reformers looked for new leaders to bring
  democracy and stability to their countries.
• In East Germany, the fall of the Berlin Wall
  quickly led to calls of the reunification of
  Germany.
• On December 2, 1990, Helmut Kohl, riding a wave
  of pro-unification sentiment, was elected in a
  landslide as the first chancellor of Germany.
• Other countries looked to their national heroes
  to lead their new regimes.
• Czechoslovakia elected a dissident playwright,
  Vaclav Havel, who had been in jail months before.
  Then, in 1992, Czech and Slovak agreed to split
  Czechoslovakia into two separate nations. The
  split was done on January 1993. They became known
  as The Czech Republic and the Republic of
  Slovakia. The countries maintained close economic
  and political ties.
• In Poland Lech Walesa was elected president in
  1990.
• Albania opened its sealed borders, allowed
  opposition parties to form, and held elections in
  1991.
• Other nations, such as Romania, organized
  coalition governments from a multitude of
  political parties.

27
THE CRUMBLING WALL contd.

• Facing Challenges
• New Eastern European governments faced the task
  of shifting from communism to democracy and free
  enterprise.
• State run economies were in shambles, and the new
  government inherited a host of problems. These
  included inefficient or outdated industries, huge
  national debts, work forces paid regardless of
  the quality of their work, artificially low
  prices for basic goods, and currencies considered
  worthless by the rest of the world.
• In addition, little investment was available in
  Eastern Europe to modernize old industries or
  fund new ones. To attract foreign investment and
  financial aid, new governments had to reform
  their economies by cutting spending, balancing
  budgets, closing or selling off inefficient
  state-run firms, and training workers in new
  skills.
• With strong industrial bases, the Czech Republic,
  Hungary, and Poland seemed the most likely to
  succeed in the transition from communism to
  capitalism. However, even in these lands,
  economic reforms imposed hardships on citizens,
  with many workers facing unemployment and
  reductions in social benefits.

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THE CRUMBLING WALL contd.

• Facing Challenges contd.
• In Hungary and Poland, dissatisfied voters in the
  mid-1990s returned ex-Communists to power.
• Eastern Europe reformed communists, however,
  supported democracy and favored their countries
  joining the NATO, although they wanted a slower
  pace to privatization and opposed radical cuts in
  social welfare programs.
• In 1997,Solidarity and other non-Communists
  candidates triumphed over their ex-Communists
  opponents in Polands parliamentary elections.
• The post-Communist era not only brought economic
  hardships but political stability and wide spread
  violence to the countries in the southern parts
  of Eastern Europe.
• There, democratic traditions were not as strong,
  and economies had only been recently
  industrialized.
• In Bulgaria, ex-Communist leaders poorly managed
  the state-run economy and rejected any reforms
  until the country was hit by a grain shortage and
  severe inflation. In 1997, citizen protests
  forced the government to call elections, which
  brought anti-Communists to power. Bulgarias new
  leaders promised to introduced free enterprise
  and won international financial help.

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THE CRUMBLING WALL contd.

• Facing Challenges contd.
• In Albania, Eastern Europes poorest country,
  democracy and free enterprise were nearly
  engulfed in chaos. During the early 1990s, almost
  every Albanian family invested money in schemes,
  which abruptly collapsed in 1997. With their
  savings gone, they rioted the throughout the
  country, blaming the government for the collapse
  and demanding payment.
• Rebel groups took control of southern Albania,
  and many Albanians in other areas with weapons
  looted from the countrys arsenals.
• A UN peacekeeping force restored order and new
  elections were held.

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THE CRUMBLING WALL contd.

• War in the Balkans
• After communisms fall, Eastern Europe
  experienced a rebirth of nationalist feeling.
• The most serious outbreak of nationalist conflict
  occurred in Yugoslavia.
• Multiparty elections were held after the death of
  Josip Broz Tito. Non-Communist parties won seats
  in the parliaments of Bosnia-Herzegovina,
  Croatia, Macedonia, and Slovenia.
• In Serbia and Montenegro, the former Communist
  parties, renamed as Socialist parties, won
  majorities. The leader of Serbia, Slobodan
  Milosevic, renounced communism but was intent on
  expanding his power.
• After the elections, the most industrialized
  republics- Croatia and Slovenia- charged that
  Serbia sought to dominate the rest of the
  country. In 1991, when Serbia opposed any
  restructuring of Yugoslavia that would give the
  other republics more autonomy, or self-rule,
  Slovenia and Croatia declared their independence.
  
• Fighting then broke out between the Croat army
  and ethnic Serbs who refused to be under Croat
  rule.
• Serbia and Montenegro, which together became
  Yugoslavia, backed the ethnic Serbs of Croatia.
  With this aid, Serb forces gained control of
  one-third of Croatias territory.

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THE CRUMBLING WALL contd.

• War in the Balkans contd.
• In the fall of 1991, Macedonia declared its
  independence.
• The following year, the Muslim population and the
  Croats Bosnia-Herzegovina voted for its
  independence from Serb-controlled Yugoslavia.
  Ethnic Serbs living in Bosnia-Herzegovina opposed
  the election and its outcome. Fighting broke out
  between the two sides.
• In 1994, the exhausted Bosnian Muslims and Croats
  formed a federation, and the United States asked
  the ethnic Serbs to end the fighting and joined
  as well.
• After military pressure from Croatias land
  forces and NATO air strikes, the Bosnian Serbs
  accepted and ceased fire and American-sponsored
  peace talks.
• In 1995, the leaders of Bosnia-Herzegovina,
  Yugoslavia, and Croatia met at Dayton, Ohio, and
  agreed to set up a Bosnian state divided into
  separate Croat-Muslim and Serb regions.
• Dissatisfaction with Slobodan Milosevic led to
  discord in Serbia. In 1996, Milosevic tried to
  block opposition wins in local elections.

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SECTION 3- TOWARD A EUROPEAN NATION

• Keywords
• Referendum, collective security
• People to Meet
• Margaret Thatcher, John Major, Tony Blair,
  Francois Mitterrand, Jacques Chirac, Helmut Kohl,
  Juan Carlos I, Felipe Gonzalez, Andreas
  Papandreou
• Objective
• To find out what steps have Western European
  nations taken to unify their governments and
  economies.

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TOWARD A EUROPEAN NATION

• Introduction
• Since the 1970s, Western European nations have
  faced economic recession, budget deficits, and
  high unemployment. However, they also worked to
  modernize their societies and to balance economic
  growth with the social needs of their peoples.

34
TOWARD A EUROPEAN NATION contd.

• Great Britain
• In 1979, voters, dissatisfied with economy, high
  taxes, and trade union strikes, brought the
  Conservative party into a long period of power.
• Great Britains first woman prime minister,
  Conservative party leader Margaret Thatcher
  aggressively introduced free market measures. She
  privatized state-owned industries, scaled back
  welfare programs, and limited trade union powers.
  Although her policies aided business growth, they
  created high unemployment.
• Thatchers successor, John Major, led a
  Conservative party increasingly divided over
  Great Britains ties to Europe.
• During the 1990s, the British economy continued
  to grow, with falling unemployment and relatively
  low inflation.
• 18 years after the Conservative rule, voters
  wanted a change and in 1997 brought the Labor
  party to power.
• Tony Blair was elected as the new prime minister.
  He moved away from Labor's traditional socialism
  and favored low taxes, tightly controlled social
  spending, and closer ties to Europe.
• The most innovative of Blairs plans was the
  reform of British government. In response to
  growing nationalism in Scotland and Wales, he
  favored home rule for these parts of Great
  Britain.
• In 1997, Scottish voters approved creation of
  their own parliament to tax and legislate on
  local issues.

35
TOWARD A EUROPEAN NATION contd.

• Ireland
• A major European issue from the 1990s was the
  status of Northern Ireland, the British-ruled
  province torn by divisions between Protestants
  and Catholic.
• As clashes between the two communities increased,
  the British government sent troops to Northern
  Ireland and imposed direct rule during the 1970s.
• The outlawed Irish Republican Army (IRA) fought
  British rule by attacking British military forces
  and civilians in the province and Great Britain.
• After violence in the 1980s, Northern Irish
  agreed to cease fire and in 1998, made a peace
  agreement that continued British rule and also
  set up an elected assembly and an executive
  council made up of Protestants and Catholics.

Picture of Ireland
36
TOWARD A EUROPEAN NATION contd.
F Mitterrand

• France
• France enjoyed political stability from the 1970s
  to 1990s.
• In 1981 French voters elected Francois Mitterrand
  as Frances first Socialist president.
• Mitterrand nationalized major industries and
  funded new social programs.
• His measures, however, increased inflation, and
  he eventually was forced to make cutbacks.
• By mid-1990s, Mitterrand also had to work with a
  largely conservative legislature.
• In 1995 Jacques Chirac, the conservative mayor of
  Paris, was elected president of France. Chirac
  promised a referendum, or popular vote, on France
  future relationships with a united Europe.
• He also tried to balance the budget by further
  cuts in government spending.
• In 1997, a majority of voters rebuffed Chirac and
  elected Socialist and other leftist legislature.

J Chirac
37
TOWARD A EUROPEAN NATION contd.

• Germany
• During the 1970s West Germany, under Chancellor
  Willy Brandt and his successor, Helmut Schmidt,
  enjoyed prosperity.
• After a month of inflation and unemployment,
  Helmut Kohl came to power. In 1990 he presided
  over the reunification of Germany following the
  collapse of communism.
• He made preparations for the transfer of the
  German capital from Bonn to Berlin by the year
  2000.
• Eastern Germanys economic rebuilding required
  vast expenditures, and Germans in the west had to
  pay higher taxes.
• In eastern Germany, the closing of inefficient
  industries unemployment , although economic
  rebuilding in the long term provide eastern
  Germany with most modern technology in Europe.
• By 1997, unemployment was at its highest level
  throughout Germany since 1930s.
• Social and political unrest accompanied economic
  difficulties throughout Germany. Neo-Nazis and
  other right-wing protested against immigration
  from southern Europe to the Middle East. Because
  of Germans protests, the German parliament in
  1993 amended the constitution to reduce the flow
  of immigrants into Germany.
• The same year, Germany highest court ruled that
  German troops could take part in international
  peacekeeping missions.

38
TOWARD A EUROPEAN NATION contd.

• Germany contd.
• Until then, the constitution had banned all
  military activities expect those related to
  collective security, or point agreement by
  nations to protect themselves from attack.

• Mediterranean Europe
• Mediterranean Europe made great strides in
  political and economical development from the
  1970s to 1990s.
• Dictators fell and democracies arose in Spain and
  Portugal.
• However, economic recessions hurt the
  Mediterranean countries.
• From the 1970s to 1990s, a variety of economic,
  social, and political problems plagued Italy,
  including uneven distribution of wealth between
  the north and south, an inefficient government
  bureaucracy, and constantly changing governments.
  

39
TOWARD A EUROPEAN NATION contd.

• During the 1970s Italy had the largest Communist
  party which was popular because it promoted a
  less authoritarian view of communism. It shared
  power of ruling with conservative Christian
  Democrats.
• Christian Democrats, later renamed the Populists,
  controlled the government during the 1980s-90s.
  During this time, the leftist parties- Communists
  and Socialists- suffered from political disputes
  and political scandals.

Map of Italy
40
TOWARD A EUROPEAN NATION contd.

• Mediterranean Europe
• After 35 years of dictatorship under Francisco
  Franco, Spain in the late 1970s entered a new era
  of democracy guided by its new king, Juan Carlos
  I. Spain democratic government was in the hands
  of Felipe Gonzalez in most of the 1980s-90s.
• In 1996 Spanish voters replaced the Socialists
  with a conservative government under Jose Maria
  Aznar.
• Since the restoration of democracy, the Spanish
  government has granted the Basque Provinces and
  other regions of Spain increased self-rule.
  Nevertheless, it has been unable to stop
  terrorist attacks wanting full independence for
  their region.
• Spain joined the NATO and European Community in
  the 1980s.
• A turn toward democracy also occurred in
  Portugal. There, dictatorship ended with a
  military coup in 1974, and 2 years later the
  nation held its first free election in 50 years.
  They freed most African and Asian colonies and
  joined the European Community in 1986.
• Greece was ruled by a military government from
  mid-1960s-70s.
• Democracy was restored in 1974.
• In 1981 the Socialists under Andreas Papandreou
  brought Greece into the European Community.

41
TOWARD A EUROPEAN NATION contd.

• A United Europe
• During the 1980s and 1990s, the Common Market
  broadened its activities to include political and
  financial affairs and became known as the
  European Community.
• In 1992 European Community members met in
  Maastricht, the Netherlands, and signed the
  Treaty of Maastricht.
• In 1993 the Single Europe Act ended most
  obstacles to trade among EU members.
• Two years later, seven EU nations allowed their
  citizens to freely travel from one member country
  to another without a passport.
• The year 1995 also saw the admission of Austria,
  Finland, and Sweden to the EU.

42
SECTION 4- NATIONAL AND ETHNIC CONFLICTS

• Key terms
• Ethnic cleansing, atrocity, enclave, embargo
• People to Meet
• Slobodan Milosevic, Alija Izetbegovic, Franjo
  Tudjman, the Chechens, the Ossetians, the
  Abkhazians, the Kurds, the Sinhalese, the Tamils,
  Brian Mulroney, Jean Chretien
• Objective
• To find out what areas of the world have been in
  ethnic discord since the end of the cold war.

43
NATIONAL AND ETHNIC CONFLICTS

• Introduction
• The end of the cold brought about communisms
  fall and triumph of democracy. The superpower
  rivalry was over, each issue stood on its own
  terms, and predictability and stability had given
  way to uncertainty and confusion. During the
  1990s, long hidden and ethnic rivalries flared
  into violence in various parts of the world. The
  threats to peace included not only fighting but
  also human tragedies such as starvation and the
  flow of refugees. Often, the global community,
  throughout the UN and other organizations, seemed
  helpless in dealing with these crisis.

44
NATIONAL AND ETHNIC CONFLICTS

• Fighting in Bosnia
• The most serious ethnic fighting took place in
  Bosnia-Herzegovina, where the creation of an
  independent state led to conflict among Croats,
  Muslims, and Serbs in the early 1990s.
• Bosnian Serbs conquered most of
  Bosnia-Herzegovina.
• In April of 1992, they began a siege of Sarajevo,
  the Bosnian capital, which was controlled by
  Muslims.
• The Serbs followed a policy called ethnic
  cleansing and ruthlessly expelled rival ethnic
  groups from the areas they had taken by army.

Map of Bosnia
45
NATIONAL AND ETHNIC CONFLICTS contd.

• Fighting in Bosnia contd.
• The Croats and the Muslims carried out
  atrocities, or cruel acts against Serbs.
• The UN imposed an embargo, a ban on trade, on
  Serbia in 1992, hoping to get the Serbs to stop
  supplying the ethnic Serbs in Bosnia.
• The United States and other UN members reported
  human rights abuses in Bosnia. The reports
  indicated that Bosnian Serbs had tortured and
  killed Bosnian Muslims and Croats in detention
  camps.
• In 1995an international court charged Bosnian
  Serb leaders with genocide for operating
  thousands of Nazi-style concentration camps and
  ruthlessly attacking civilian populations.
• In 1994 Serbia called on Bosnian Serbs to cease
  fighting.
• The United States offered a peace plan that
  prospered dividing Bosnia between Serbs and a new
  Muslim-Croat federation.

46
NATIONAL AND ETHNIC CONFLICTS contd.

• Fighting in Bosnia contd.
• When Bosnian Serbs stepped up their attacks on
  Sarajevo, NATO responded with air attacks around
  the city.
• In November 1995, three presidents- Slobodan
  Milosevic of Serbia, Alija Izetbegovic of
  Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Franjo Tudjman of
  Croatia- met in Dayton, Ohio, and agreed to the
  partition of Bosnia into distinct Serb and
  Muslim-Croat areas.
• In December Dayton treaty was signed in Paris,
  ending the Bosnian conflict.

• To safeguard the peace, a 60,00-strong NATO-led
  force arrived in Bosnia to replace the exhausted
  UN troops.
• In 1996 Bosnian voters elected Muslim, Serb, and
  Croat leaders to serve on three-person panel that
  would govern the country.
• In 1997 as conflicts erupted between moderate and
  extremist Bosnian Serbs, NATO forces began
  attacks against positions held by the war
  criminals and their supporters.
• The conflict caused the death of 200,000 people
  and forced the removal of 3 million people from
  their homes.

47
NATIONAL AND ETHNIC CONFLICTS contd.
Serbian Flag
Serbia MontenegroAir Force

• Fighting in Bosnia contd.

                                                  
                                                  
                                                  
                                                  
                                         
Destruction caused by air attacks
Serbia MontenegroAir Force
ethnic cleansing
Victims from the war
Map of Serbia
Destruction caused by air attacks
48
NATIONAL AND ETHNIC CONFLICTS contd.

• Unrest in the CIS
• With the collapse of communism, fierce ethnic
  hatreds boiled to the surface in Russia and the
  other CIS republics.
• During the Soviet era, the Russian-dominated
  government in Moscow had repressed the
  nationalism of non-Russian ethnic groups. This
  policy increased resentment among many peoples.
• After the Soviet collapse, relationships among
  the Commonwealth republics were strained.
• Russia was the most powerful nation.
• Ukraine and other European republics were
  reluctant to concede their hard-won independence
  to a Russian-dominated federation.
• Russia worked to improve the relationships with
  these countries in order to offset NATOs
  eastward expansion.
• In 1997 Russia and Ukraine signed a treaty that
  recognized Ukrainian rule over the Crimea and
  divided the disputed Black Sea naval fleet
  between them. Russia and Belarus forged a close
  union allowing citizens of both country to move
  freely into each others countries, own property
  in either country, and vote in each others local
  elections.
• Wary of Russia, the Central Asian republics and
  those Caucasus region balance ties between Russia
  with new links to Middle Eastern and Western
  countries.
• Although Commonwealth ties were often weak, the
  CIS remained intact as member nations worked
  together to resolve conflicts between them and
  within their countries.

49
NATIONAL AND ETHNIC CONFLICTS contd.

• Unrest in the CIS
• The Chechens are among the ethnic groups of
  Russia. Chechnya lies in southern Russia and near
  the Caspian Sea.
• In 1994 the Chechens declared their independence
  from Russia. Boris Yeltsin feared the breakup of
  Russia so he sent Russian troops into Chechnya.
• In 1996, when Chechen forces took back their
  capital from Russia, Yeltsin sent his aide
  General Alexander Lebed to Chechnya to work out
  an agreement to end the conflict.
• In the Caucasus region, Armenia and Azerbaijan
  both claimed ownership of the enclave of
  Nagorno-Karabakh. An enclave is a small territory
  entirely surrounded by another territory.
• Nagorno-Karabakh lies entirely within Azerbaijan,
  but its majority population of Armenians it to
  separate from Azerbaijan and join Armenia.

Armenia and Azerbaijan soldiers at war
Map of Nagorno-Karabakhs location
50
NATIONAL AND ETHNIC CONFLICTS contd.

• In 1993 Armenia and Azerbaijan went to war over
  Nagorno-Karabakh.
• Neighboring Georgia has faced separatist
  uprisings by minority ethnic groups, such as the
  Ossetians and the Abkhazians.
• In1994 the Abkhazians declared their region an
  independent republic.
• Africa and Asia
• During the 1900s, ethnic conflicts erupted in
  various parts of Africa and Asia.
• In Africa, fighting broke out between Hutu and
  Tutsi peoples in the East African republics of
  Rwanda and Burundi.
• In the Middle East, one of the most divisive
  ethnic disputes was between the Kurds and the
  government of Iraq and Turkey.

• The 20 million Kurds, are Sunni Muslims and live
  mostly in Armenia, Iran, Iraq, Syria, and Turkey,
  wanted their freedom.
• In the 1980s and 1990s, the Kurds of Turkey and
  Iraq carried out separate revolts against their
  representative governments.
• Before and after the Persian Gulf War, Iraqi
  forces used bombings and poison gas to put down
  Kurdish uprisings, which left over 1 million
  Kurds as refugees.
• Sri Lanka was also torn by ethnic discord. Its
  people belong to two groups, namely the Sinhalese
  and the Tamils. The Sinhalese were Buddhist and
  the Tamils were Hindus.
• Fighting broke out between the Tamils and the
  Sinhalese in 1983.

51
NATIONAL AND ETHNIC CONFLICTS contd.

• The fighting continued into the 1990s, killing
  40,000people and causing hundreds of Tamil
  refugees fled to India.
• Canadas Fragile Unity
• Many French people of Quebec wanted independence
  from English-speaking Canada.
• When Quebec voters in 1980 narrowly defeated an
  independence proposal, the Canadian federal
  government worked to strengthen national unity
  while respecting regional differences.
• Canadian constitution was enacted that granted
  more power to the provinces and guaranteed the
  language and cultural rights of all Canadians.
• Quebec rejected the constitution because it did
  not allow individual provinces to veto future
  amendments.
• Prime Minster Brain Mulroney tried to get
  English-speaking Canada to accept a special
  status for Quebec.
• Jean Chrétien became prime minister 10 years
  after Brian. He opposed Quebec separatism.
• 1n 1995 Quebec voters again turned down
  independence for the province, but only by margin
  of little over 1 percent.
• In June 1997 Canadian voters elected a new
  parliament, splitting their votes along regional
  lines. Prime Minster Jean Chrétien's Liberal
  party won 19 seats and the Reform party came
  second.

52
SECTION 5- GOBAL INTERDEPENDENCE

• Key terms
• Interdependence, developing nations, developed
  nations, deforestation, Internet, genetic
  engineering
• People to Meet
• Neil Armstrong, Jean Paul Sartre, Mother Teresa
• Objective
• To find out how have recent advances in
  technology affected the worlds cultures.

53
GOBAL INTERDEPENDENCE

• Introduction
• In the 1900 little people new about people of
  distant places. As the year 2000 approaches,
  people are able to communicate with distant
  people and access information at their finger
  tips. Today, a technological and communications
  revolution made us increasingly interdependent,
  or reliant on each other.

54
GOBAL INTERDEPENDENCE

• The Global Community
• Todays nations have become more interdependent
  throughout world trade.
• Since World War II, technological advances and
  the removal of tariff and other barriers to free
  trade have led to a tremendous increase in global
  exchange in goods and services.
• The worlds economic superpowers include the
  United States, the European Union, and Japan.
  These areas along with South Korea, Taiwan, and
  other countries of Asias Pacific Rim, are the
  leading competitors in international markets.
• A major global issue involving nations is the gap
  between rich and poor countries.
• Developing nations in Asia, Africa, and Latin
  America are newly industrializing countries.
  These developing countries are dependent on
  developed nations, such as the United States.
• To raise standard of living, developing nations
  often try to diversify, or increase the variety
  of, the goods they supply to the world. This
  enables them to avoid relying on one single crop
  or product.
• Developing countries often rely often rely on
  outside lending forces for funding (for example
  The World Bank and the International Monetary
  Fund).

55
GOBAL INTERDEPENDENCE contd.

• Population Growth
• The number of people on Earth affects human
  well-being and the environment.
• Developed nations point to the rapid growth of
  population in developing countries as a major
  case in straining world resources.
• 97 percent of the worlds population growth
  occurs in the developing world.
• At the present rate of growth, the worlds
  population is expected to increase from 5.8
  billion to 6 billion by 2000 and about 12 billion
  by 2050.
• People in developing countries consume far less
  per person than people do in developed countries.
  However, the large populations in the developing
  world are exhausting the resources of many areas.
• Throughout the developing world, millions of
  people leave the countryside each year and crowd
  into cities in hope of improving their lives.
  Urban growth has been so rapid that cities cannot
  keep up with needs for food, shelter, and jobs.

56
GOBAL INTERDEPENDENCE contd.

• The Environment
• The abundance of earths resources have been
  taken for granted for many years. Today, however,
  human use and abuse of resources- especially the
  high consumption of resources in the developed
  world- has reached such levels that the planet
  may no longer be able to heal itself.
• Damage to the atmosphere, land, water and air,
  has an impact on all living things.
• Vast areas of the earths land have been
  destroyed by overgrazing, pesticides, and
  deforestation, the widespread clearing of forest
  for logging or farming.
• Between 1970 and 1990, developing countries lost
  40 percent of their farmland.
• The oceans and freshwater are also being abused.
  

57
GOBAL INTERDEPENDENCE contd.

• The Environment contd.
• Coastal waters are heavily polluted with
  chemicals and waters. The bulk of contamination
  comes from poisonous industrial wastes, municipal
  sewage, and runoffs of fertilizers, pesticides,
  and salts.
• The demand for freshwater as grown in countries
  such as southwestern United States, the Middle
  East, and North Africa.
• Since the 1970s, the worlds people have become
  aware of environmental issues, and a number of
  international gatherings have stressed the
  urgency of dealing with the environmental crisis.

58
GOBAL INTERDEPENDENCE contd.

• The Environment contd.
• In 1987 delegates from 46 countries met in
  Montreal, Canada, and signed the Montreal
  Protocol, which called for reductions in the use
  of chemicals damaging the earths atmosphere.
• Other important gatherings were the 1992 Earth
  Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil and the
  follow-up 1997 Earth Summit5 in New York City.
• The Technological Revolution
• Since 1945, the world has undergone a
  technological revolution as significant as the
  Industrial Revolution of the early 1800s.
  Computer are at the heart of this transformation.
• They process information that can analyze a
  nations economy, forecast the weather, interpret
  public opinion polls, or calculate the flight
  path of a rocket.
• The applications of computer technology are
  varied. The brain driving the computer is the
  microchip, a mesh of circuits etched on a silicon
  wafer.
• Doctors use these chips to power the limbs worn
  by people who need them.
• Industrial robots programmed to assemble machines
  and perform tasks such as welding and painting
  represent another application of microchip
  technology.
• Computers are playing an important role in the
  expansion of global communications. The most
  dramatic leap in communications has been the
  internet, a massive number of computers linked
  together through a worldwide, high-speed,
  telecommunications network.

59
GOBAL INTERDEPENDENCE contd.

• The Technological Revolution
• Computer and other new technologies have also
  made space exploration possible. Since the Soviet
  launch of Sputnik, the first satellite into
  orbit, in 1957, the Americans and Russians have
  sent hundreds of satellites into outer space.
• In July 1969 American astronaut Neil Armstrong
  became the first man to step on the moons
  surface.
• Medical sciences have also benefited from
  technological progress. Lasers, or devices that
  emit narrow, powerful beams of light, allow
  doctors to perform delicate surgeries with
  minimal discomfort to patients.
• Current medicines can correct chemical imbalances
  in the brain, thereby treating the severe
  depression that can cripple some peoples lives.
• Organ transplant have become possible with new
  technologies. Kidneys and livers are among the
  most commonly transplanted organisms.
• Recent DNA technology has led to the new field of
  genetic engineering, a process that involves the
  alteration of cells to produce new life-forms.

60
GOBAL INTERDEPENDENCE contd.

• The Global Culture
• Technological advances have hastened the growth
  of global culture.
• Jet travel, television, and communications
  satellites have spread ideas and practices from
  one part of the globe to another. Today the
  cultures of various regions meet and blend.
• After World War II, the French thinker Jean Paul
  Sartre stated a viewpoint known as existentialism
  that became popular among intellectuals in the
  West. According to Sartre, each person is
  essentially alone, but free to choose his or her
  path of life.
• Religious individuals and groups have sought to
  meet societys needs.
• The Roman Catholic nun Mother Teresa inspired
  many people with her care of the needy in the
  slums of Calcutta, India. Also the Dalai Lama,
  Tibets Buddhist leader, and Desmond Tutu, South
  African Anglican archbishops, spoke out for human
  rights.
• In recent decades, the issue of human right has
  captured world attention. According to human
  rights groups, despite democratic advances since
  the 1980s, many governments still imprison and
  abuse people for speaking their minds. Among the
  countries accused of human rights violations are
  China, Indonesia, Nigeria, Saudi Arabia,
  Afghanistan, and Myanmar. Other, such as Iran,
  Iraq, Cuba, Libya, North Korea, Sudan, and Syria
  have also been charged with sponsoring terrorist
  acts outside their borders.
• In 1948 the United States adopted what has become
  the most important human-rights document of the
  postwar years- the Universal Declaration of Human
  Rights.
• Addressing social, economic and political rights,
  the Declaration is a statement not of the way
  things are, but the way they should be.

61

• THE END!
• QUESTIONS??