Chapter 8 Emotional and Social Development in Early Childhood

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Chapter 8Emotional and Social Development in
Early Childhood

• Development Through the Lifespan 2nd edition Berk

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ERIKSONS STAGES
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ERIKSONS THEORY

• Basic conflict of early childhoodInitiative
  versus Guilt
• Play fosters initiative and develops a conscience
  that is not too strict.
• Play develops new skills.

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Eriksons Theory

• Negative outcome is an overly strict superego.
• Causes child to feel too much guilt

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SELF-DEVELOPMENT

• Self-concept
• Sum total of attributes, abilities, attitudes,
  and values of an individual
• Defines who he or she is

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Foundations of Self-Concept

• Describe self in concrete terms.
• By 3 1/2, describe self in terms of beliefs,
  emotions, and attitudes
• Do not reference dispositions
• Struggles over objects are efforts at boundaries
  between self and others.
• Firmer sense of self permits cooperation.

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Emergence of Self-Esteem

• Self-esteem
• Sense of self-worth
• Competencies affect emotions, behaviour, and
  adjustment.
• Preschoolers usually rate own ability high.
• High self-esteem initiative
• Criticism undermines self-esteem.

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EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

• Gains in representation, language, and
  self-concept support emotional development.
• Rise in self-conscious emotions such as shame,
  embarrassment, guilt, envy, and pride

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Understanding Emotion

• Children refer to signs of emotion.
• Ability to interpret, predict, and change others'
  feelings
• Conflicting cues
• Focus on most obvious
• Neglecting the relevant

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Emotional Self-Regulation

• Language contributes to self-regulation.
• Emotions blunted by
• Restricting sensory input, talking to oneself or
  changing goals
• Emotional outbursts less frequent through
  preschool

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Emotional Self-Regulation (cont.)

• Temperament affects self-regulation.
• Environment affects capacity to cope.
• Imagination
• Difficulty separating reality and appearance
  fears

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Self-Conscious Emotions

• Injury or enhancement of self
• Audience necessary for self-conscious emotions
• Achievement and moral behaviour

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Empathy

• Altruistic behaviour
• Does not always yield kindness
• Can escalate into distress.
• Focuses on self rather than on person in need
• React to suffering of others in same way parents
  respond to them

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Hoffman -EMPATHY seeing how others feel and
relating that to oneself

• Global Empathy (see the feeling of another
  mirror that behaviour- innate behaviour, mostly
  emotional)
• Egocentric (see the feeling of another relate
  to how you would want comfort -some cognition
  strong emotion)
• Empathy for feelings (see the feeling and match
  for understanding but action relate to helping
  -more cognition than emotion)
• Empathy for condition (see the feeling, know the
  context possibilities -strongly cognitive
  emotion)

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EisenbergMoral behaviour is caring, sharing or
doing good for otherscalled prosocial
behaviour or altruism

• Hedonistic (self)
• Needs- oriented (others needs related to how the
  individual would feel)
• Approval oriented (parents, friends approve)
• Self-reflective, empathetic (good of group, a
  good thing to do)
• Internalised value system

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PEER RELATIONS

• Advances in Peer Sociability (Parten)
• Nonsocial activity
• Onlooker behaviour and solitary play
• Parallel play
• Plays near other children with similar materials
• Does not interact.
• Highest level
• Associative play
• Engaged in separate activities, but interact
• Cooperative play
• Actions are directed toward a common goal

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Recent Evidence on Peer Sociability

• Play emerges in Partens order.
• Forms overlap.
• Type, not just amount, of social activity
  changes.
• Most play is positive and constructive.
• Sociodramatic play is common.
• Supporting cognitive and social development

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Cultural Variations

• Collectivist societies
• Peer sociability takes different forms than in
  individualistic cultures.
• Beliefs about play affect interaction.

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First Friendships

• Basic to emotional and social development
• 4- to 7-year-olds regard friendship as
  pleasurable play.
• Spontaneity and intimacy characterise
  friendships.
• Parental influences
• Show children how to initiate their own peer
  contacts.
• Guidance and examples of how to act
• Some children have difficulty with peer relations.

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MORALITY

• By 2, act with alarm to aggression
• At first morality is externally controlled
• Later regulated by inner standards
• Moral individuals have principles that they
  follow in a variety of situations.

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Psychoanalytic Perspective

• Freud places burden on parents.
• Moral development complete by 5 to 6
• Superego
• Children whose parents use threats or physical
  force
• Show little guilt after harming others
• Show poor self-control
• Induction
• Effects of misbehaviour are communicated to the
  child.
• Encourages empathy and prosocial behaviour

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Behaviourism and Social Learning Theory

• Imitate models who demonstrate appropriate
  behaviour
• More likely to copy prosocial actions of person
  if
• Consistent between assertions and behaviour
• Warm
• Competent
• Powerful

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Punishment

• Justified when immediate obedience is necessary
• Long term Warmth and reasoning better
• Punishment promotes momentary compliance.

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Harsh Punishment

• Provides model of aggression
• Teaches to avoid the punishing adult
• Offers relief to adults, who are then reinforced
  for using coercive discipline

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Alternatives to Harsh Punishment

• Time out
• Removal from setting until ready to act
  appropriately
• Withdrawal of privileges

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Alternatives to Harsh Punishment

• Effectiveness of punishment is increased when
• Used consistently
• In a warm parent-child relationship
• Accompanied by an explanation
• Encourage and reward good conduct

Figure 8.1
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Cognitive-Developmental Perspective

• Children actively think about social rules.
• React to violations of moral rules more than
  social conventions
• Understand moral rules because they protect
  people's rights and welfare
• Preschoolers who are disliked by peers due to
  aggression show difficulties with moral reasoning.

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Development of Aggression

• Instrumental aggression
• Obtaining an object, privilege, or space with no
  intent to harm
• Declines with age
• Hostile aggression
• Intended to harm another individual
• Increases between 4 and 7.

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Development of Aggression (cont.)

• Overt aggression
• Harms others by injury or threat
• Relational aggression
• Damages peer relationships

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Gender and Aggression

• Boys more aggressive
• Male sex hormones contribute.
• As 2-year-olds become aware of gender stereotypes
• Aggression drops off in girls.
• Maintained in boys
• Girls express hostility through relational
  aggression.

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Family and Aggression

• Boys expect less disapproval and are less guilty
  over aggression.
• Spreads from one member to another
• More likely to command and punish sons
• Overlook fighting among boys
• Aggressive children
• Rejected by peers, fail in school, and seek out
  deviant peer groups

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Television and Aggression

• 62 of U.S./Aust programs contain violence.
• Preschoolers do not understand much of what they
  see.
• May increase willingness to imitate.
• TV violence hardens children to aggression.

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Controlling Aggression

• Teach adaptive ways of interacting
• Social problem-solving training
• Teaches how to resolve conflicts through
  discussing and trying successful strategies

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GENDER TYPING

• Process of developing gender roles
• Gender-linked preferences and behaviours

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Gender-Stereotyped Beliefs and Behaviour

• Age 2, children begin to label their own sex and
  others
• Categorise sex-type behaviours
• Boys Active, assertive, and aggressive
• Girls Fearful, dependent, compliant, and
  sensitive
• Gender beliefs stronger in preschool years

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Genetic Influences on Gender Typing

• Maccoby argues hormones lead to rough, noisy boys
  and calm, gentle girls.
• Children choose same-sex partners with interests
  and behaviours compatible with own.
• Social forces build on heredity to develop gender
  roles.

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Environmental Influences on Gender Typing

• Family
• Parents promote play with gender-appropriate
  toys.
• Believe boys and girls should be raised
  differently
• Children with opposite-sex siblings have
  opportunity to imitate and cross-gender play.
• Boys more gender-typed by parents

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Environmental Influences on Gender Typing (cont.)

• Teachers
• Encourage gender role conformity
• Girls encouraged in adult activities at preschool
• Peers
• Same-sex peers reinforce gender-typed play
• Television
• Gender stereotyping in programs for children

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Gender Identity

• Image as masculine or feminine
• Androgyny
• Identity high on both masculine and feminine
  traits
• Masculine and androgynous people
• Higher self-esteem

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Emergence of Gender Identity

• Social learning
• Acquired through modelling and reinforcement
• Cognitive-developmental
• Acquire gender constancy before gender-typed
  responses

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Gender Constancy

• Understanding that sex remains the same even if
  clothing, hairstyle, and activities change
• Not present until the end of preschool
• May be due to lack of opportunity to learn about
  genital differences

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Gender Schema Theory

• Information-processing approach
• Environmental pressures, child's cognitions shape
  gender role
• Organize experiences into gender schemes.
• Masculine and feminine categories

Figure 8.2
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Reducing Gender Stereotyping in Young Children

• Society promotes gender equality.
• Adults can remove stereotyping from own
  behaviour.
• Explain that interests and skills should
  determine a person's occupations and activities.

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CHILD REARING

• Child-Rearing Styles
• Demandingness
• High standards for children
• Responsiveness
• Accepting and responsive
• Authoritative Child Rearing
• Demanding and responsive fair and reasonable
• Children happier and relaxed

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Child-Rearing Styles (cont.)

• Authoritarian Child Rearing
• Demanding but not responsive to needs/rights
• Obedience valued
• Children anxious, withdrawn, unhappy, and hostile
  if frustrated
• Boys Anger and defiance
• Girls Dependent and retreat from challenges

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Child-Rearing Styles (cont.)

• Permissive Child Rearing
• Responsive but undemanding
• Overly tolerant
• Children
• Immature
• Have difficulty controlling impulses
• Demanding and dependent on adults
• Less persistent

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What Makes Authoritative Child Rearing So
Effective?

• Associated with maturity, self-esteem, and
  academic achievement in children
• Fair and reasonable control
• Provides model of concern and assertiveness
• Parents demands are tied to childrens
  capacities.

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Cultural Variations

• Chinese describe parenting as demanding.
• Hispanic and Asian Pacific Islanders
• Parental control by the father paired with
  maternal warmth
• African-American mothers often rely on
  adult-cantered approach.
• Expect immediate obedience
• Uninvolved parents
• Little commitment to caregiver role
• Can be a form of child neglect

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Child Maltreatment

• Increase in public concern
• Qld Government responses
• Many cases now reported (teachers, parents,
  church, family, friends)
• Includes physical, sexual, emotional, or
  psychological abuse or neglect
• Largest number of sexual abuse victims identified
  in middle childhood.

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Origins of Child Maltreatment

• The Family
• More likely to be abused
• Premature or sick babies
• The difficult, inattentive, and overactive
• Those with developmental problems
• Once started, becomes self-sustaining family
  relationship
• Parental stress

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Origins of Child Maltreatment (cont.)

• The community
• Abusive parents isolated from social supports
• Mistrust and avoid others
• Few links between family and community
• The larger culture
• Society views violence as appropriate to solve
  problems.
• In U.S., laws against maltreatment, but support
  for the use of physical force in parent-child
  relations.
• Child abuse rare where physical punishment is not
  accepted.

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Consequences of Maltreatment

• Abused children show learning and adjustment
  problems.
• Aggressive behaviour
• At school
• Noncompliance, poor motivation, cognitive
  immaturity interfere with achievement.

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Preventing Maltreatment

• Family, community, and overall societal
  interventions (criminal codes, publicity,
  community standards)
• Social supports to ease parental stress
• Separating abusive parent from child