Policing America:

1
Chapter 7
Policing America Issues and Ethics
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CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter, you should be able
to

• Describe the general attitude of the public
  toward the police.
• Summarize the steps in an effective police
  officer selection process.
• Identify factors that affect the exercise of
  police discretion and methods of limiting
  discretion.

3

• Describe two general ways that law enforcement
  agencies can reduce stress on the job.
• Explain the circumstances when police officers
  may be justified in using deadly force.
• List some of the ways to control and reduce
  police corruption.

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7.1 The Police and the Public
To be successful, the police must have the trust
and cooperation of the public.
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The Police and the Public

• The manner in which the police carry out the
  functions of
• Law enforcement
• Order maintenance
• Service
• Information gathering
• determines the communitys respect for and trust
  in the police.

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Public Attitudes Toward the Police
What do people think of the police?

• It depends on
• whom you ask
• peoples prior experience

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Protection From Crime
74 of the public has at least some confidence in
the ability of the police to protect them from
crime in general.
The public is much less confident in the polices
ability to protect them from violent crime.
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JUSTICE ISSUE

• What effect to you think a persons socioeconomic
  status has on his or her view of the police in
  the community?

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Solving Crime
The public has about as much confidence in the
polices ability to solve crime as it does about
the polices ability to protect them from crime
in general.
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Preventing Crime
The publics confidence in the ability of police
to prevent crime is somewhat less than its
confidence in the ability of police to solve
crime.
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Treatment of Citizens

• Almost 75 of Americans believe that police in
  their communities are helpful and friendly.

• 64 believe the police treat all races fairly.
• Half believe police brutality against Blacks and
  Hispanics in their community happens often or
  occasionally.

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Honesty and Ethical Standards
More than half of Americans rate the honesty and
ethical standards of the police as high or very
high.
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CRITICAL THINKING

• Why do you think that racial groups differ so
  greatly in their attitudes toward the police?
• What do you think could be done to improve public
  attitudes toward the police?

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7.2 Police Recruitment and Selection
Police departments should hire the type of
officers the community wants, but deciding what
the community wants is a difficult task involving
different people with different
opinions. Selection decisions have momentous
long-term implications for a police department.
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Entering the World of Policing
In a way, police officers are like boxers.

• They must be careful out there.
• They must be properly trained, and their training
  must be realistic, physical, offensive, and
  defensive.
• They must play by the rules.
• They often socialize together, because they share
  a unique perspective on life.

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Qualities of a Successful Police Officer
Police officers require a rare combination of
qualities and abilities

• Motivation for a police career
• Normal self-assertiveness
• Emotional stability under stress
• Sensitivity toward minority groups and social
  deviates

continued
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Qualities of a Successful Police Officer

• Collaborative leadership skills
• A mature relationship with social authority
• Flexibility
• Integrity and honesty
• An active and outgoing nature

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Qualities of a Successful Police Officer
Particularly important qualities are known as the
three Is of police selection.
Nearly as important are common sense and
compassion.
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three Is of police selection
Three qualities of the American police officer
that seem to be of paramount importance are
intelligence, integrity, and interaction skills.
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The Police Recruitment Process
The police officer selection process is usually
very elaborate. Police departments are often
guided by civil service regulations developed to
ensure equal opportunity for all.
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Recruitment
The kind of people many departments need to
attract often do not naturally gravitate to
police work.
The major goal of recruiting is to cast police
work as an attractive and sustaining career, even
to those who might initially be turned off by it.
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Affirmative Action
Police departments continue to struggle to find
the best-qualified applicants, yet achieve
satisfactory race and gender representation
within the department.
Affirmative action programs have increased the
percentage of racial minorities in policing, but
are now being legally challenged.
23
Education

• The average level of education in policing today
  is nearly two years of college.

• College-educated police officers perform better
  on the job than less educated officers.
• As a result, Ohio developed college academies.

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college academies
Schools where students pursue a program that
integrates an associates degree curriculum in
law enforcement or criminal justice with the
states required peace officer training.
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Successful Recruiting Practices
Successful recruiting practices include

• Going to colleges, neighborhood centers, and
  schools in minority communities
• Using television, radio, and newspaper
  advertisements

continued
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Successful Recruiting Practices

• Working with local employment agencies
• Demystifying the nature of police work and the
  selection process
• Shortening the time from application to final
  selection

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Public Safety Officers
Other promising recruitment strategies have been

• the employment of 18-year-olds as public safety
  officers

• police cadet programs

• high school technical preparation programs

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public safety officers
Police department employees who perform many
police services but do not have arrest powers.
police cadet programs
A program that combines a college education with
agency work experience and academy training. Upon
graduation, a cadet is promoted to police officer.
continued
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technical preparation
A program in which area community colleges and
high schools team up to offer six to nine hours
of college law enforcement courses in the 11th
and 12th grades, as well as one or two training
certifications, such as police dispatcher or
local corrections officer. Students who graduate
are eligible for police employment at age 18.
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The Police Selection Process

• In many communities, selection of police officers
  is through a merit system.

• Officers employed under such a system are hired
  and tenured (theoretically) if they meet and
  maintain the employment qualifications and
  performance standards.
• They cannot be fired without cause.

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merit system
A system of employment whereby an independent
civil service commission, in cooperation with the
city personnel section and the police department,
sets employment qualifications, performance
standards, and discipline procedures.
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The Police Selection Process
The police officer selection process often
includes

• Short application
• Detailed application, including complete work
  history, references, and medical profile
• Medical examination

continued
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The Police Selection Process

• Physical ability test
• Written examination
• Background investigation
• Psychological testing
• Oral interview

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The Police Selection Process
The final steps of selection are

• Academy training
• Probation, usually between six months and one
  year, which includes formal field training

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The Selection of a Law Enforcement Executive
The selection of a chief executive of a police
agency is a crucial decision. The selection
process often involves

• Decision by a selection committee
• An executive search firm
• Several visits to the city

continued
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The Selection of a Law Enforcement Executive

• Written exams
• Interviews
• Assessment center testing

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JUSTICE ISSUE
Being elected sheriff could mean that a person
has more political savvy than ability or
knowledge of law enforcement. Do you think the
political nature of a sheriffs job is fair to
the people who rely on the sheriff for police
services?
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CRITICAL THINKING

• What do you think are the most important
  qualities for police officers to have? Why?
• How much formal education do you think police
  officers should have? Why?

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7.3 Issues in Policing
Many areas of policing remain topics of debate,
particularly

• Discretion
• Stress
• Use of force
• Police corruption
• Professionalizing law enforcement

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Discretion
No list of policies and procedures could possibly
guide police officers through all the situations
in which they find themselves. Police routinely
must use their own discretion.
The issue of police discretion is very
controversial, particularly because some officers
abuse their discretion.
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discretion
The exercise of individual judgment, instead of
formal rules, in making decisions.
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Patrol Officer Discretion
Patrol officers routinely use their discretion in
deciding

• Where to patrol when not answering radio calls
• Whom to stop and question
• Which traffic violators to chase
• To ignore a minor violation in pursuit of
  something more serious

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Patrol Officer Discretion

• Patrol officers cannot provide full enforcement.

• Instead, police officers usually practice
  selective enforcement.

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full enforcement
A practice in which the police make an arrest for
every violation of law that comes to their
attention.
selective enforcement
The practice of relying on the judgment of the
police leadership and rank-and-file officers to
decide which laws to enforce.
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Factors Affecting Discretion
A number of significant factors affect discretion

• The nature of the crime
• Departmental policies
• The relationship between the victim and the
  offender
• The amount of evidence available

continued
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Factors Affecting Discretion

• The preference of the victim
• The demeanor of the suspect
• The legitimacy of the victim
• Socioeconomic status of the complainant

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JUSTICE ISSUE
Officers are called in to settle a domestic
dispute. During the interview process, they note
and remark about one spouses bleeding nose and
swollen eye. The injured spouse refuses to press
charges, and the other spouse apologizes
profusely and promises not to strike again. The
officers, sensing that the dispute is a one-time
argument that got out of hand, decide not to make
a formal complaint.
continued
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JUSTICE ISSUE
Two weeks later, the officers are called back to
settle another domestic dispute between the
spouses. When they arrive, they find that the
spouse who had been injured is now dead. Do you
think the officers should have handled the
problem formally during the first call?
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Discretion and Domestic Violence
Until very recently, police looked on domestic
violence as a family matter not suitable for
police intervention.
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Discretion and Domestic Violence

• Today police are required to intervene if crimes
  are committed, by
• mediating the dispute
• separating the domestic partners, or
• arresting the perpetrator
• Which tactic is appropriate is often decided by
  the officer.

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Discretion and Racial Profiling
Racial profiling is of growing concern to law
enforcement officials and to the public.
Often stops are justified by minor equipment or
moving traffic violations that might otherwise be
ignored. At the root of the practice is racial
stereotyping.
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racial profiling
The stopping and/or detaining of individuals by
law enforcement officers based solely on race.
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Discretion and Racial Profiling
Methods aimed at stopping racial profiling
include

• Racial and cultural diversity training
• Strong discipline for errant officers
• Videotaping of all traffic stops

continued
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Discretion and Racial Profiling

• Collecting data on the race of stopped motorists
  and pedestrians and the disposition of the
  encounter
• Having police officers distribute business cards
  to all motorists and pedestrians they stop

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Factors Limiting Discretion
Several methods are employed to control the
amount of discretion exercised by police officers

• Close supervision
• Policies covering behavior in certain situations,
  such as the use of force
• The threat of civil liability lawsuits

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JUSTICE ISSUE

• Do you think there are currently too many
  controls on the decision-making authority of the
  police? Why or why not?

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Job Stress
Given the nature of police work, no one is
surprised to discover that law enforcement
officers experience job stress.
job stress
The harmful physical and emotional outcomes that
occur when the requirements of a job do not match
the capabilities, resources, or needs of the
worker.
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Sources and Effects of Stress
Sources of stress
Symptoms of stress

• Design of tasks
• Management style
• Interpersonal relationships
• Work roles

• Frequent headaches
• Difficulty in concentrating
• Short temper
• Upset stomach
• Job dissatisfaction
• Abuse of alcohol and drugs
• Low morale

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Stress Management and Reduction
Stress can be managed and reduced through

• Discussing stressful events with colleagues and
  mental health professionals
• Regular exercise
• Relaxation techniques
• A healthy diet, without caffeine or nicotine

continued
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Stress Management and Reduction

• A healthy diet, without caffeine or nicotine
• Enriched family support
• Religious support
• Pray and meditation
• Organizational changes that give officers more
  control over their work environment

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Copicide
A phenomenon that affects some police officers is
copicide, or suicide by cop.
A study of police shootings in Los Angeles found
that 10 of the deaths of citizens could be
attributed to copicide.
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copicide
A form of suicide in which a person gets fatally
shot after intentionally provoking police
officers.
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Use of Force
A precise definition of brutality is not
possible, but for many people, brutality includes
not only excessive physical force, but also

• verbal abuse
• profanity
• harassment
• threats of force
• unnecessary stopping, questioning, and searching
  of citizens

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Excessive Force
Police use force in order to control suspects who
resist arrest and may be armed. The disrespect
and physical resistance in these encounters have
caused police to sometimes use excessive force.
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excessive force
A measure of coercion beyond that necessary to
control participants in a conflict.
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JUSTICE ISSUE

• Do you think police officers use excessive force?
  
• Why or why not?

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Excessive Force
The persistent use of excessive force by the
police

• is unethical and criminally illegal.
• exposes the police to criminal and civil
  prosecution.
• builds up resentment by citizens against police.
• costs law enforcement agencies millions of
  dollars in legal damages.

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Deadly Force
In 1985, the U.S. Supreme Court greatly
restricted the conditions under which police can
use deadly force.
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Deadly Force
The use of deadly force is not justifiable unless

• The arrest is for a felony.
• The person effecting the arrest is authorized to
  act as a peace officer or is assisting a person
  whom he believes to be authorized to act as a
  peace officer.
• The actor believes that the force employed
  creates no substantial risk of injury to innocent
  persons.

continued
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Deadly Force

• The actor believes that
• The crime for which the arrest is made involved
  conduct including the use or threatened use of
  deadly force.
• There is substantial risk that the person to be
  arrested will cause death or serious bodily harm
  if his apprehension is delayed.

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Deadly Force
Even with these guidelines, the decision to use
force is seldom clear-cut for police officers.
Research on the use of force, excessive force,
and deadly force, has not identified any specific
procedures that would significantly reduce the
injury to or death of police officers and the
citizens they confront.
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Police Corruption
Nothing is more distasteful to the public than a
police officer or a whole department gone bad.
Throughout history, police officers have bought
their positions and promotions, sold protection,
and ignored violations of the law for money.
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Police Corruption
Why is policing so susceptible to corruption?

• Police have authority to enforce law.
• Police also have the discretion to not enforce
  the law.
• Police receive relatively low pay, but have
  important responsibilities.
• Police become cynical about the courts soft
  treatment of criminals.
• Society in general is ambivalent about vice.

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Types of Corruption
The Knapp Commission in 1972 identified two kinds
of corrupt officers

• Grass eaters

• Meat eaters

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grass eaters
Officers who occasionally engage in illegal and
unethical activities, such as accepting small
favors, gifts, or money for ignoring violations
of the law during the course of their duties.
meat eaters
Officers who actively seek ways to make money
illegally while on duty.
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Types of Corruption
Ellwyn Stoddard identified a more complete list
of police misconduct

• Bribery accepting cash or gifts in exchange for
  nonenforcement of the law.
• Chiseling demanding discounts, free admission,
  and free food.
• Extortion the threat of enforcement and arrest
  if a bribe is not given.

continued
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Types of Corruption

• Favoritism giving breaks on law enforcement to
  family and friends.
• Mooching accepting free food, drinks, and
  admission to entertainment.
• Perjury lying for other officers apprehended in
  illegal activity.
• Prejudice unequal enforcement of the law with
  respect to racial and ethnic minorities.
• Premeditated theft planned burglaries and theft.

continued
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Types of Corruption

• Shakedown taking items form the scene of a theft
  or a burglary.
• Shopping taking small, inexpensive items from a
  crime scene.

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Controlling Corruption
Some of the ways to control and reduce corruption
in policing are

• High moral standards
• Police policies and discipline
• Proactive internal affairs investigations unit

• Uniform enforcement of the law
• Outside review and special prosecutors
• Court review and oversight

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internal affairs investigations unit
The police unit that ferrets out illegal and
unethical activity engaged in by the police.
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Professionalizing Law Enforcement
Many people would argue that policing in America
has already reached professional status.
Professional accreditation for police agencies is
a rite of passage that is needed if law
enforcement is to join the list of the most
respected professions.
82
JUSTICE ISSUE
Do you consider the police officers in your
community to be professionals? Why or why not?
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Professionalizing Law Enforcement
Professionals in any field make unintentional
mistakes. A caring public should forgive most of
them.
However, racist and brutal tactics like the Los
Angeles police officers beating of Rodney King
should not be tolerated.
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Professionalizing Law Enforcement
Police officers need to treat their on-duty time
as a professional performance in order to improve
the publics perception of law enforcement as a
profession worthy of trust and admiration.
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CRITICAL THINKING

• What do you think are the best ways for police
  officers to handle stress on the job?
• What do you think are the best ways to recruit
  new police officers?

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• End of Chapter 7