Stage 2 Classical Studies

1
Stage 2Classical Studies

• Literary Terms for Section A

2
The Epic Poem

• The epic or heroic poem is a long narrative poem
  on a serious subject, centred around the actions
  of an heroic figure on whose actions depend the
  fate of a nation or race.
• The traditional epic poems were shaped from the
  legends of the Greek heroic age, when the
  Mykenaean Greeks or Akhaeans were on the move and
  engaged in military conquest and expansion during
  the Trojan War.

3
Characteristics of Epic Poetry

• The hero is a figure of great national or
  international importance.
• The setting is large in scale, sometimes
  world-wide, or at least of the known world.

4
Characteristics of Epic Poetry

• The actions involves heroic deeds in battle or a
  long and arduous journey intrepidly
  accomplished.
• In these great actions, the immortals and other
  supernatural beings themselves take an interest
  and active part.
• An epic poem is a ceremonial performance.

5
Characteristics of Epic Poetry

• The poet begins by stating his theme, then
  invokes the Muses to help him with his
  undertaking.
• The narration usually begins in the middle point
  of the action and at a crucial point the events
  that happened before the narrative opening are
  introduced later on.
• There are catalogues of some of the main
  characters, introduced to the reader in formal
  detail.

6
Narrative Features of Epic Poems

• Epic poems were initially performed as oral
  traditions, by wandering professional bards, and
  this has an impact upon the narrative of the
  poem.

7
Narrative Features of Epic Poems

• Digressions
• Anecdotes
• Myths and stories
• Epithets
• Repetitions
• Recurrent lines and phrases

8
Recurrent Lines and Phrases

• There is the repetition at length by a speaker of
  another speakers, their own or the narrators
  earlier words.
• The repetition of epithets.
• Similar phrases used to introduce and/or conclude
  speeches.
• Single lines or a group of lines which describe
  everyday life (e.g. beginning a meal) or events
  (e.g. Dawn).

9
Construction of Characters

• Characterisation is the way that the characters
  are constructed, which then develops their
  specific characteristics or nature.

10
Six Main Ways of Constructing a Character

• The habitual behaviour of the character.
• The physical description of the character.
• The known judgements and reaction of other
  characters to them.

11
Six Main Ways of Constructing a Character

• The character is shown in specific episodes.
• The use of epithets or stock phrases to describe
  the character.
• Specific biographical details are provided about
  the character.

12
Construction of the Epic Hero

• The epic hero is the central figure of the epic
  poem, whose actions involve heroic deeds in
  battle or a long and arduous journey. They are
  favoured or opposed by the immortals.

• Odysseus.
• Agamemnon.
• Akhilles.
• Nestor.
• Menelaus.
• Aiax.

13
Construction of Relationships

• Gender
• Power
• Politics
• Family or oikos
• Immortals and mortals
• Mortality

14
The Plot

• It is the story line of the epic poem.
• The plot is the system of actions, which are
  carried out by the characters.

15
Structure of an Epic Poem

• The structure of an epic poem is the organisation
  of the plot. It is the order in which the
  episodes that make up the plot are presented to
  the audience.
• The main type of structure for an epic poem is
  non-linear.
• Flashbacks are used to facilitate a non-linear
  structure.

16
Structure of an Epic Poem

• Flashbacks are interpolated descriptions or
  scenes representing events that happened before
  the point at which the plot opens.

17
Structure of an Epic Poem

• The narrator of the poem changes on occasions.
  Homer uses himself, other epic heroes, other
  bards and even Odysseus as the narrator on
  occasions.

18
Structure of an Epic Poem

• Despite the complex structure of The Odyssey,
  there is a unity of action within the poem.
• How does Homer achieve this?

19
The Physical Setting

• The physical setting is the locale in which the
  action takes place.
• Most of the physical setting of The Odyssey is in
  Ithaka, but it also includes the sea, the
  Underworld and various other lands during
  Odysseus adventures.
• Troy is also part of the physical setting when
  stories of Odysseus warrior qualities are
  referred to by other characters.

20
The Physical Setting

• The physical setting is created by
• Imagery
• Descriptive words and phrases
• Similes
• Metaphors

21
The Physical Setting

• The action of the poem occurring in a particular
  physical setting can have impact on
  characterisation.
• Odysseus characterisation in the sea and in the
  Underworld.

22
The Social Setting

• The social setting is the period in which the
  action takes place.
• In The Odyssey, the social setting is the Heroic
  Age which is a conglomeration of the societies of
  the Mykenaean and Dark Ages.

23
The Social Setting

• The social setting can be the macro setting of
  Heroic society
• or
• the social setting can be the micro setting of
  particular societies, such as the values, customs
  and norms of the Phaeakia or Ithaka or the land
  of the Kyklopes or the Lotus eaters.

24
Stylistic Features of Epic Poems

• Imagery
• Descriptive words and phrases
• Similes
• Metaphors
• Irony
• Epithets

• Symbolism
• Suspense
• Climax
• Pathos
• Contrast

25
Imagery

• Imagery is used to signify descriptive passages
  that create mental pictures for the audience.
• It can be used to describe a setting, a character
  or an action.
• Imagery is often created by figurative language,
  especially similes and metaphors.

26
Descriptive Words and Phrases

• Descriptive words and phrases are often used to
  create imagery or enhance characterisation
  through their impact and association in the mind
  of the audience.

27
Similes

• In a simile a comparison between two essentially
  different items is expressly indicated by a term
  such as like or as.

28
Metaphors

• In a metaphor, a word which in ordinary use
  signifies one kind of thing, quality or action is
  applied to another, without express indication of
  a relation between them.

29
Irony

• Irony is a mode of speech in which the implied
  attitudes or evaluation are opposed to those
  literally expressed.
• Praise or approval that implies dispraise or
  disapproval is more frequent than the converse
  form.
• Often the audience is aware of the irony of a
  situation while the characters are not.

30
Epithets

• Epithets or stock phrases are a device of oral
  traditions, designed to give the bard a staged
  pause to assist in composition and to assist with
  the poetic metre.
• Those associated with characterisation help to
  develop that character by reinforcing particular
  aspects of their character.
• The adjectives also add colour to their
  character.
• The epithets used in conjunction with common
  nouns are included more for the requirements of
  metre.

31
Symbolism

• Symbolism is applied to a word or a phrase
  signifying an object which itself has
  significance, that is, the object referred to has
  meaning beyond itself.
• The olive tree is a symbol of rebirth throughout
  The Odyssey.
• Throughout The Odyssey the physical and social
  problems in Ithaka are symbolic of the absence of
  Odysseus from his homeland.

32
Suspense

• Suspense is an anxious uncertainty about what is
  going to happen, especially to those characters
  with whom the audience has established bonds of
  sympathy.

33
Climax

• Climax is the highest point of the action.

34
Pathos

• Pathos is attributed to a scene or passage
  designed to evoke tenderness, pity, sympathy or
  sorrow from the audience.

35
Contrast

• Contrast allows the poet to highlight features of
  one setting or character with those of another.
• This is used to enhance both imagery and
  characterisation.

36
Themes

• Themes are the abstract concepts which are
  embodied in the plot and the structure of the
  epic poem.
• Themes should raise issues with a contemporary
  audience.

37
Themes

• Love
• Loyalty
• Gender
• Sexual Desire
• Honour
• Heroism

• Death
• Endurance
• Cunning
• Power
• Friendship
• Hospitality

38
Themes

• Order
• Family
• Servitude
• Patriarchy
• Violence
• Suffering

• Adolescence
• Temptation
• Respect
• Human nature
• Returning veterans

39
Multiple Readings

• The way that different societies interpret the
  issues of the themes are referred to as multiple
  readings.

40
Multiple Readings

• Multiple readings often questions gaps and
  silences in texts.
• This can be read as
• Whose voice or viewpoint is not addressed?
• or
• Who is not given equal value in the power
  structures of this society?

41
Example Athene

• Athene, although a goddess, has many masculine
  symbols associated with her (shield, helmet and
  aegis).
• A multiple reading of The Odyssey may explore why
  in Greek society, to be accepted as powerful
  enough to move and advise within male society, a
  goddess must be invested with masculine symbols
  to legitimise this role.

42
Multiple Readings

• The reading would then examine other female
  characters who lack these masculine symbols,
  explore the characteristics of these females, and
  examine why these females instead are constructed
  either as passive (Penelope or Naussika) or
  dangerous (Kalypso, Klytemnestra or Helen).

43
Multiple Readings

• A character like Kirke sits in the middle she is
  a female with a phallic symbol, thus her
  intermediary status constructs her as able to
  facilitate passages between the male and female
  world, as well as between the Underworld and the
  physical real world.

44
Multiple Readings

• Ultimately then, by examining the construction
  of these female characters, we can formulate
  theories about power and patriarchal structures
  in Greek society.

45
Multiple Readings

• Homer may not necessarily have overtly recognised
  these, but in constructing his characters like
  this, he has allowed us symbolic access to
  deconstruct them in our framework.