Bonnie Duncan

1
WRITING A RESEARCH PAPER Design And Assembly
Skills

• by
• Bonnie Duncan
• English Dept.
• Millersville University

2
Introduction

• What is a research paper?
• A piece of academic writing that requires a
  critical and thoughtful level of inquiry.
• It requires clear thinking and the time to
  review, understand, and evaluate a subject.
• Most important aspect is evaluating and
  acknowledging sources.
• Most dangerous aspect is plagiarism and other
  forms of academic dishonesty.

3
Steps in writing a research paper

• Choose a field, select a subject within that
  field, do enough preliminary research to narrow
  your topic a bit.
• Limit chosen topic, ask a preliminary research
  question about it.
• Find sources (books, articles, journals,
  websites) that can help answer your research
  question.
• Evaluate your sources.
• Make a preliminary bibliography.
• Propose a balanced, fair working thesis answering
  your research question.
• Narrow 5 to a list of references useful in
  answering your question
  continued

4
Steps in writing a research paper

• Take notes
• Paraphrase (directly quote only very briefly and
  rarely. Remember you must cite both paraphrases
  and direct quotations.
• Summarize your authors positions
• Create primary research plan as necessary
  (questionnaires, etc.), remembering to maintain
  the privacy of your subjects.
• Make an outline. Work step by step filling in
  the sections of your report.
• Prepare referencing (footnotes, endnotes,
  parenthetical citations), glossary, appendix, and
  work cited/bibliography as needed.
• Do final organization
• Do final drafting
• Add abstract, introduction, conclusion, etc. only
  after the body has been constructed.
• Revise

5
Structure of a research paper

• Cover page (if paper is 10 or more pages long and
  delivered in hard copy)
• Cover Memo or other clear explanation of who you
  are, what this is, what class/assignment its
  for, and any other information you think your
  professor is likely to need.
• Table of Contents
• Illustrations
• Abstract or Executive Summary
• Introduction (start here with Arabic numerals
  previous material is in lower case Roman
  numerals)
• Body (set up subsections as needed)
• Conclusion
• Work Cited (and possibly a Bibliography)
• Other materials as needed
• Glossary
• Appendix
• Index

6
STEP 1 Choosing a Topic

• What to choose
• Subjects that
• Match the subject matter of the course and/or
  unit involved
• Interesting to you and within your capacity if
  you work at it.
• Source availability
• Contemporary (research the field-you dont want
  something dated that current decades ago)
• Do-able in the time involved.

7
STEP 1 Choosing a Topic

• Do not choose subjects which are
• Very old or very new
• (a) Very controversial or (b) dull and lifeless
• Of little interest to you
• Likely to take too long to research in the time
  you have
• Beyond your ability to research given your level
  of education

8
STEP 2 Narrowing and Limiting the Topic

• Narrowing and Limiting the Topic
• How much do you know about the topic?
• How long is your paper to be?
• How much time do you have before it is due?
• Process
• Too General (Likely to be your first topic)
• Still Broad (O.K., now youve done a bit of
  reading)
• Less Broad (And, youve begun to get a sense of
  work done in the field)
• Narrow Enough (So you take a tiny bite out of
  that which you are likely to be able to handle in
  the time you have available)

9
STEP 3 Finding and selecting sources

• Finding and selecting sources where are you
  searching?
• Library indices
• Check the card catalog (particularly for books)
• Millersville University Library Catalog -- Guided
  Search
• Reach further, checking the PALCI catalog,
  Library of Congress, etc.
• Check periodicals for timely, focused articles in
  th field
• Academic Search Complete, Lexis/Nexis, etc.
• Indices in your field
• Google Scholar (compare with popular press found
  in Google)
• Watch the three Jing Tutorials on using Google
  Scholar
• Google Scholar (articles in the field, book
  chapters, etc.)

10
STEP 3 Finding and selecting sources (books,
articles, other)

• Finding and selecting sources
• Compiling a preliminary bibliography
• Selecting from the preliminary list
• Note basis for your first evaluation
• Age of the book or article
• Relevance of the piece to your own study
• Qualifications of the author (Expert in the
  field? Reporter? Unvetted website? A real
  quack?)
• Focus
• General (Dictionary/Encyclopedia/Wikipedia). You
  can use this to get started, but dont base a
  college level paper on these.
• Specific (For the general public? Topic opener
  for the interested college student? Expert in
  the field writing on highly focused, detailed
  experiment or study?)
• Reputation Look up the author and the
  periodical. What else has the person written?
  What university does she or he teach with? Who
  has cited this authors work?
• Bias Everyone has some bias, some perspective.
  Its just that some people are overt about
  noting biases, while others seem unaware or
  choose to hide biases or preconceptions.
• Length Some scientific pieces are very short,
  almost posters, while other articles run to 20-30
  pages. More important How well does the piece
  seem to prove its thesis, and what does it lend
  to your own work?
• Truth and honor There is nothing wrong with
  failing to prove your thesis. Negative results
  are still useful, if only to leave people
  wondering why it didnt work and/or knowing not
  to try that again. All carefully, honestly done
  studies of interesting questions are useful.

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STEP 4a Proposing a Research Question

• Definition Research Question
• A Research Question is a statement that
  identifies the phenomenon to be studied.
• Example What resources are most helpful to new
  and minority drug abuse learners?
• A strong research question should pass the so
  what? test. Think about the potential impact of
  the research you are proposing.
• What is the benefit of answering your research
  question? Is it worth your time, as well that of
  your peers and your professor?
• Do you know enough to understand the literature,
  or should you put it off until you know more?
• Is it provable or disprovable given the time,
  expertise, and resources you have? Do not, by
  the way, hesitate to say so if, at the end, your
  results are negative or inconclusive. All
  research should be shared honestly.

12
STEP 4b Proposing a Research Program and a
Working Thesis

• Definition
• A research program explains how you are going to
  go about finding the answer to your research
  question.
• A working thesis is statement of opinion about or
  attitude towards the topic which will either be
  proved or disproved by the argument in the
  research paper. (This is what I think I may
  find, the result I expect.)
• A sentence that expresses the main idea of the
  paper.
• A specific statement that decides length of
  paper.

13
STEP 4c Proposing a Working Thesis

• The working thesis
• not a repetition of the topic.
• only provisional
• can be adjusted or even disproved
• Formulation of the thesis
• One, complex sentence making a statement about
  the topic, showing personal judgment or
  evaluation.

14
STEP 4 Proposing a Working Thesis and a
methodology

• Topic Rude words
• General Statement Words perceived as rude or
  forbidden have changed over the generations from
  those having to do with religion to those having
  to do with sexuality, and more currently words
  having to do with inequality of protected
  classes.
• Research Question Will three generations
  (grandparents, parents, students) display a
  different discomfort when asked to speak or
  discuss the three classes of words.
• Thesis Grandparents generation (60) will
  exhibit more discomfort when speaking, or
  speaking about, all these classes of words, but
  will show more discomfort with religious rude
  words than the other generations, presuming equal
  religiosity among each group. Similarly,
  parents age group (40) will be most discomfited
  with sexuality terms, and the student group (18)
  with cursing involving inequality of protected
  classes.
• Methodology Questionnaire

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STEP 5 Note Taking

• Literature Review Create an annotated
  bibliography of ideas, data, scholars that help
  you to do a literature review (secondary
  research), create follow through with a research
  plan (primary research), and answer your
  research question pro, con, or inconclusive.
• Paraphrase
• Writing skill in which information is written in
  different words without changing its original
  meaning.
• Steps to paraphrase
• Read the selection
• find synonyms
• Write a brief outline
• DO NOT change the meaning of the original text,
  and DO NOT use words from the original sentence.
  
• DO Put the book away and put the statement in
  your own words.
• Accurately cite your sources. It does not matter
  whether you paraphrase or directly quote. In
  either case, you MUST cite the source of the
  idea. You must cite them in two places
• Within the text as parenthetical citation,
  footnote, or endnote
• Outside the text as a Work Cited section and/or a
  Bibliography

16
STEP 5 Note Taking

• ORIGINAL PARAGRAPH
• When the Maracana soccer stadium in Rio De
  Janeiro, Brazil was opened to the public on June
  24, 1950, and Brazil lost the World Cup to the
  Uruguayan team, the Brazilians were so
  disheartened one had the impression that the
  country itself had died. And people did die of
  sadness. Mere threats of defeat in a
  championship match can cause heart attacks and
  the despair of the public was so great that many
  beat their heads against the cement posts. Such
  as the Brazilians passion for soccer.
  (SoccerTimes, July 16, 1950)

17
STEP 5 Note Taking

• OUTLINE
• A. Brazil lost the World Cup
• 1. Entire country was sad
• 2. Some people died
• B. Possible defeat causes strong reaction
• 1. Some experience heart attacks
• 2. Some beat their heads
• C. Brazilians are very emotional about soccer

18
STEP 5 Note Taking

• MODEL PARAPHRASE
• In 1950, Brazil lost the World Cup in soccer to
  Uruguay in Rio de Janeiro. The entire country
  was overcome by sadness some people even died
  from it. Brazilians react very strongly to
  potential defeat in championship soccer games.
  Some people have heart attacks, and others beat
  their heads against cement posts. Brazilians are
  very emotional about soccer. (Soccer Times, July
  16, 1950)
• As you can see, by stepping away from the
  original text, working only from the outline,
  this student created a tighter paragraph that
  more closely meets her needs. Also note that
  because her parenthetical citation of source
  comes outside the final period, it covers the
  full paragraph, and not just that last sentence.

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STEP 5 Note Taking

• Difference between legitimate and unacceptable
  paraphrases
• Source
• What is unmistakably convincing and makes
  Millers theater writing hold is its authenticity
  in respect to the minutiae of American life. He
  is a first-rate reporter he makes the details of
  his observation palpable.
• UNACCEPTABLE PARAPHRASE
• What is truly convincing and makes Arthur
  Millers theatrical writing effective is its
  authenticity. He is an excellent reporter and
  makes his observation palpable.
• Note Just changing a few words does not a
  paraphrase make. This author is copying all the
  other words, so is still plagiarizing. Also,
  note that no source is cited. Do your own
  thinking, and always cite your sources. Even
  with the source cited here, it also must be fully
  cited in the Work Cited section.
• LEGITIMATE PARAPHRASE
• The strength of Arthur Millers dramatic art lies
  in its faithfulness to the details of the
  American scene and in its power to bring to life
  the reality of ordinary experience (here the
  author would cite the source of that quote shown
  above).
• Here, the author is making his own assessment of
  the text, deciding what he makes of it . Note
  that the citaiton goes within the period because
  theres just one sentence involved

20
STEP 5 Note Taking

• Summarize
• Similar to paraphrase but usually shorter
• Steps to Summarize
• Find the main idea
• Keep most important supporting ideas and major
  details
• Rewrite sentences in your own words .
• Leave out unimportant words and emphasize most
  important ideas.
• Use transition words
• Usually about a third as long as the original
  material

21
STEP 5 Note Taking

• EXAMPLE SUMMARY
• The Soccer Times notes that the Brazilian people
  become so emotionally involved with their
  national soccer team that in 1950, when their
  team lost the World Cup to Uruguay, the entire
  country was saddened, and some people even died.
  The mere possibility of defeat causes genuine
  physical suffering. (July 16, 1950)

22
STEP 5 Note Taking

• Incorporating summary or paraphrase
• Transitional phrases
• A.D. Collister in his book / article explains
  that, believes that, shows that
• It is A.D. Collisters belief/opinion/view/conclus
  ion that..

23
STEP 5 Note Taking

• Explain your idea in your own words and mention
  other people who agree with you.
• Example
• It appears from the evidence that . . . . . . . .
  (May 1996, Fortan 2004).
• Using anyones ideas in any form without
  acknowledging them is plagiarism.

24
STEP 5 Note Taking

• Introduce generally accepted ideas by impersonal
  expressions
• Examples
• It is generally believed / held / argued /
  acknowledged that . . . . ..
• A commonly held opinion is that . . . . . .
  ..
• Doctors/ teachers / scientists have said that . .
  . . . . .
• N.B. Every summary or paraphrase must have a
  source note (citation)

25
STEP 5 Note Taking

• Quote
• Repetition in speech or writing of someone elses
  words.
• Purpose To prove or support a statement or
  opinion to emphasize an idea.
• Selection Use quotations when
• writer has used a particular apt expression
• explained something in a very clear, clever,
  original or illuminating way

26
STEP 5 Note Taking

• In case of lack of originality, do not quote,
  but summarize or paraphrase.
• Note
• Acknowledge source.
• Do not use too many quotations.
• Synthesize, comment on and analyze the
  information.
• Do not quote just for its own sake.

27
STEP 5 Note Taking

• Incorporating quotations
• Punctuation
• Example
• A.D. Collister wrote, There is no evidence to
  suggest that the earth is anything but flat.
• Transitional Phrases
• Example
• As X says,
• According to Y, .

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STEP 5 Note Taking

• Longer Quotations
• leaving a line empty
• indenting the extract on both left hand and right
  hand margins
• using single spacing.
• Ellipses mean that you are leaving material out.
  Three dots mean you are leaving out some words
  from a sentence. Four dots means that you are
  leaving out material from more than one sentence,
  or that, with the eliminated material, its at
  the end of a sentence.
• Example.
• It was found that. In 1972 .. at Manchester
  University foreign students spent as average
  of 23 / 7 hours per week listening to English and
  only 6 hours speaking to English people ..
  (Nash, 1990, p. 45)

29
STEP 5 Note Taking

• Differences between quoting, paraphrasing, and
  summarizing
• Quotations identical to the original
• Paraphrasing putting a passage from source
  material into your own words
• Summarizing putting the main idea(s) into your
  own words, including only the main point(s)

30
STEP 5 Note Taking

• Rationale for using quotations, paraphrases and
  summaries
• Provide support or add credibility to the writing
• Refer to work that leads up to work in progress
• Give examples of several points of view on a
  subject
• Agree or disagree with the thesis
• Highlight a particularly striking phrase,
  sentence, or passage by quoting the original
• Expand the breadth or depth of your writing
• Nobody can know it all. Citing sources proves
  that youve done your homework and know the
  literature. It strengthens your paper.

31
STEP 5 Note Taking

• Frequently intertwine summaries, paraphrases, and
  quotations to make the writing smooth. Here, the
  author italicizes not only the book Freud wrote,
  but also the directly quoted material. Because
  the author notes the name of the book and author
  within the text, only the pages involved need to
  be cited in parenthesis at the end.
• Example
• In his famous and influential work On the
  Interpretation of Dreams, Sigmund Freud argues
  that dreams are the royal road to the unconscious
  (page), expressing in coded imagery the dreamers
  unfulfilled wishes through a process known as the
  dream work (page). According to Freud, actual but
  unacceptable desires are censored internally and
  subjected to coding through layers of
  condensation and displacement before emerging in
  a kind of rebus puzzle in the dream itself
  (pages).

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STEP 5 Note Taking

• Definition of Plagiarism
• Polite term for copying.
• The unacknowledged use of someone elses words or
  ideas.
• Cost of Plagiarism
• A lowered grade/being made to rewrite your paper
• An F on your paper
• A permanent mark on your university record
• Dismissal from university
• Possible litigation by the author/publisher
• A ruined reputation
• See Academic Integrity

33
STEP 5 Note Taking

• Actions that might be seen as plagiarism

Buying, stealing, or borrowing a paper
Copying or using the source too closely when
paraphrasing
Building on someone's ideas without citation
Hiring someone to write your paper
Copying from another source without citing on
purpose or by accident(Note how hard it is to
prove which is which)
Deliberate plagiarism Accidental
plagiarism
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STEP 5 Note Taking

• Need to Document
• Using or referring to somebody elses words or
  ideas from a magazine, book, newspaper, song, TV
  program, movie, Web page, computer program,
  letter, advertisement, or any other medium.
• Using information gained through interviewing
  Phone interview, Mr. John Smith, September 11,
  2008.)
• Copying the exact words or a unique phrase As
  Dr. Duncan suggests, most bird song is a matter
  of males singing, My treemy treemy tree! or
  Mate with memate with memate with me NOW!
• Reprinting diagrams, illustrations, charts, and
  pictures. Figure 2. Title. Information.
  (Source.)

• No Need to Document
• Writing your own experiences, observations,
  insights, thoughts, and conclusions.
• Using common knowledge folklore, common sense
  observations or shared information.This can get
  tricky, though. Whats common knowledge? What
  the person on the street might know. The sun
  sets in the west. The Atlantic Ocean is east of
  here.
• Compiling generally accepted facts (also tricky,
  when in doubt, cite source Lecture in ENGL110,
  professor X, spring semester, 2007)
• Writing up your own experimental results (but add
  an appendix, methodology section, etc.).

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STEP 6 OUTLINING

• Outline a detailed plan or skeleton of paper
• Form of outline
• Title
• I. First main idea
• A. Supporting idea
• 1. Detail
• 2. Detail
• 3. Detail
• i. Minor detail
• ii. Minor detail
• B. Supporting idea
• II. Second main idea

• Balance Outlines.
• If you add an A, then you also need a B, etc. In
  the example left, you can see that each level of
  argument is balanced in that way, including 1, 2,
  3. You can have as many as you want, so long as
  you have at least two.

36
STEP 6 OUTLINING

• Use only main ideas for main headings.
• Relate subheadings to main headings.
• Put all headings in a series of same type.
• Have at least two subheadings.
• Map outline to text.
• Indent items correctly.
• Put a period after each letter or number.
• Be consistent in format.

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STEP 6 TWO TYPES OF OUTLINING
Topic Outline and Sentence Outline

• Example of a Topic Outline
• Choices in College and After
• Thesis The decisions I have to make in choosing
  college courses depend on larger questions I am
  beginning to ask myself about my lifes
  work.
• Outline
•   I. Two decisions described
• A. Art history or chemistry
• 1. Professional considerations
• 2. Personal considerations
• B. A third year of French?
• 1. Practical advantages of knowing
  a  foreign  language
• 2. Intellectual advantages
• 3. The issue of necessity
•   II. Definition of the problem
• A. Decisions about occupation
• B. Decisions about a kind of life to lead
•  III. Temporary resolution of the problem
• A. To hold open a professional possibility
  chemistry
• B. To take advantage of cultural gains already
  made French

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Section 6 Sentence outline

• Choices in College and After
• Thesis The decisions I have to make in choosing
  college courses, depend on larger questions I am
  beginning to ask myself about my lifes
  work.
• Outline
• I. I have two decisions to make with respect to
  choosing college courses in the immediate future.
• A. One is whether to elect a course in art
  history or in chemistry.
• 1. One time in my life, I planned to be
  a chemical engineer professionally.
• 2. On the other hand, I enjoy art and
  plan to travel and see more of it.
• B. The second decision is whether to
  continue a third year of French beyond the basic
  college requirement.
• 1. French might be useful both in
  engineering and travel.
• 2. Furthermore, I am eager to read good
  books which are written in French.
• 3. How necessary are these
  considerations in the light of other courses I
  might take instead?
• II. My problem can be put in the form of a
  dilemma involving larger questions about my whole
  future.
• A. On the one hand I want to hold a
  highly-trained position in a lucrative
  profession.
• B. On the other hand I want to lead a
  certain kind of life, with capacities for values
  not connected with the making of money.
• III. I will have to make a decision balancing the
  conflicting needs I have described.
• A. I will hold open the professional
  possibilities by electing chemistry.
• B. I will improve and solidify what cultural
  proficiency in another language I have already
  gained, by electing French.
• Examples Courtesy of Marion Cushman, Los Angeles
  City College Library 01/22/01

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Step 7 Referencing

• What is Referencing?
• An important part of academic writing.
• A way of referring to the work of others to
  provide evidence and support.
• Avoid plagiarism
• All sources used must be cited within the text.
• A full list of sources cited must be included in
  the reference list, sometimes called References,
  Work Cited, or Bibliography.
• Use the style of referencing appropriate to the
  subject matter and your professors preference.
  In my classes that can be MLA, APA, or Chicago
  Manual of Style formats.
• Take care to insure accuracy and consistency.
  Its easy to fail in this if you copy/paste
  citations from other resources, as they may be
  using another form.
• If you are citing a resource that in turn cites
  someone else, dont drill down, cite the one you
  actually read.

40
Citing sources within the text (1)

• You can use one of three formats
• In text (parenthetical) citation.Example
  There are not enough examples in this essay,
  (Brown, 19984).
• Footnotes. Footnote citations must be added at
  the foot or bottom of the SAME page where you
  have cited the sources. All first Footnote
  references must be cited in full. Subsequent
  references of the same work may be shortened to
  include only the author's last name and page
  number. If the source cited has no author stated,
  use whatever minimal information is needed to
  identify the same work previously cited, e.g.
  short title and page number. Formerly, the Latin
  terms ibid. and op. cit. were used but they are
  no longer preferred.Example In reference to
  Freak Shows at circuses, Rothenberg makes the
  observation that people who possess uncommon
  features and who willingly go out in public to
  display such oddities to onlookers are acting as
  "modern-day taboo breakers" by crossing the
  "final boundary between societal acceptance and
  ostracism."5
• 5 Kelly Rothenberg, "Tattooed People as Taboo
  Figures in Modern Society," 1996,  BME/Psyber
  City, 18 Jan. 2005
  tab.html.

41
Citing sources within the text (2)

• Endnotes.
• List your endnotes numerically and consecutively,
  both in your essay and in your endnote citation.
  Endnote numbers must be superscripted. In your
  text, add a superscripted number immediately
  after the quote or reference cited with no space.
• Endnotes must be added on a separate Endnotes or
  Notes page at the end of your essay just before
  the Works Cited or Bibliography page. All first
  Endnote references must be cited in full.
  Subsequent references of the same work may be
  shortened to include only the author's last name
  and page number. If the source cited has no
  author stated, use whatever minimal information
  is needed to identify the same work previously
  cited, e.g. short title and page number.
  Formerly, the Latin terms ibid. and op. cit. were
  used but they are no longer preferred.
• You may prefer to use endnotes in place of
  footnotes, as you eliminate the need to allow
  sufficient space to accommodate all the required
  footnote entries at the bottom of the same page
  where your citations occur.
• I dont care which you use, presuming you are
  consistent, so you may prefer the much simpler
  parenthetical documentation in place of either
  footnotes or endnotes.
• Example
• In traditional British East Africa, between the
  time of puberty and marriage, a young Akamba girl
  must maintain an avoidance relationship with her
  own father.6 Looking at taboo in a modern
  society, Marvin Harris gives an interesting
  example of the application of cultural
  materialism to the Hindu taboo against eating
  beef.7
• Note I italicized the example to differentiate
  it from the rest of the page. (Endnotes page
  example See next page)

42
Endnotes page example

• Endnotes
• 1Alan Dundes, "Taboo," World Book Encyclopedia.
  2000 ed.
• 2 "Taboo," Occultopedia Encyclopedia of Occult
  Sciences and Knowledge,Site created and designed
  by Marcus V. Gay, 18 Jan. 2005 pedia.com/ t/taboo.htm.
• 3 Mary Douglas, "Taboo," Man, Myth Magic, ed.
  Richard Cavendish, new ed., 21 vols. (New York
  Cavendish, 1994) 2546.
• 4 Douglas 2549.
• 5 Kelly Rothenberg, "Tattooed People as Taboo
  Figures in Modern Society,"
• 1996, BME / Psyber City, 18 Jan. 2005
  .
• 6 Sigmund Freud, Totem and Taboo (New York
  Random, 1918) 17.
• 7 Marvin Harris, "The Cultural Ecology of Indias
  Sacred Cattle," Current Anthropology 1992,
  751-66, qtd. in McGrath, "Ecological
  Anthropology," Anthropological Theories A Guide
  Prepared by Students for Students 19 Oct. 2001,
  U. of Alabama, 18 Jan. 2005 ant/Faculty/Murphy/ecologic.htm.

43
Step 7 Referencing Review

• In Text Citation
• Direct Citation Use exact words from text
  between quotation marks.
• Example There are not enough examples in this
  essay, (Brown, 19984).
• Indirect Citation Rewrite idea or opinion of
  author in your own words as a paraphrase or a
  summary.
• Example Brown felt that a particular piece of
  writing was lacking in examples (19984).
• Note that in 2 the authors name is used
  within the sentence, so it does not need to be
  restated in the parenthetical citation at the
  end.

44
Step 7 Referencing Review

• In text citation Name of author somewhere in
  sentence or parenthetical information. Other
  information necessary to finding the information
  in the parenthetical material.
• Footnotes/Endnotes
• Footnotes at the bottom of the same page.
• Endnotes citations and reference lists at end of
  paper
• Using footnotes or endnotes
• (a) Put a number at the end of the sentence which
  requires citation.
• (b) Show number as superscript 15.
• (c) Leave four spaces between the last line of
  text and the first footnote on each page.
• (d) Indent first line.

45
Step 7 Foot- or Endnotes

• Examples
• 15 Ronald E. Pepin, Literature of Satire
  (Lewiston Edwin Press, 1988) 78
• 16 Rodulf Anaya, Bless Me Ultima (New York
  Warner books, 1972) 66
• 17 Anaya, 155
• Note Just the last name if the author has been
  mentioned before. (Since its easy to
  copy/paste, most authors no longer use ibid. or
  op. cit.)

46
Step 7 Referencing

• You need to provide a References or Work Cited
  list in addition to your textual citation
  (parenthetical citation, footnotes, or endnotes).
  A bibliography in additional to all of this is
  optional.
• A References or Work Cited list refers to all the
  books, articles and websites referred to in an
  assignment.
• A Bibliography refers to the list of all the
  sources used, even if not cited. Includes
  reference list plus all read material. So, why
  add a bibliography? Because you may have read a
  number of useful books, websites, or articles
  that you would like to recommend to your readers
  in addition to the materials you actually cited
  within your paper.

47
Step 7 Referencing

• Referencing rules
• List sources alphabetically by surname of author
• Chronological listing for more than one work by
  an author (new to old)
• Authors surname appears first followed by
  authors given name and middle initial(s) if
  given.
• Separate names by commas for more than one author
  
• Include all necessary information. Be consistent
  and accurate.

48
Step 7 Referencing

• Reference lists for different entries
• Book
• Brown, J. 1998, Essay Writing for University
  Students, Sage, London.
• (Separate names for more than one author by
  commas).
• Brown, J., Smith, L., Jones, P. 1998, How to
  Write Good Essays, Sage, London.

49
Step 7 Referencing

• Edited book
• Brown, J. Smith, C. (eds),1998, Essay
  Writing for University Students, Sage,
  London.
• Chapter or section of a book
• Jones P.1997, Some students simply cannot
  write good essays, in Essay Writing for
  University Students, ed. J .Brown, Sage, London,
  pp12-32.

50
Step 7 Referencing

• Journal article
• Brown, G.1998, Some things are better left
  unsaid An introduction to the art of minding
  your own business, Journal of Self Improvement,
  Vol.3, No.2, pp 4-15.
• Electronic Journal article
• Brown, G. 1998, Some things are better left
  unsaid An introduction to the art of minding
  your own business, Journal of Self Improvement,
  online, Vol.3, No.2. Available Proquest 5000,
  Accessed 7 June 2003

51
Step 7 Referencing

• Newspaper or magazine article
• Greenwood, J. When time runs out, Gulf News,
  June 23, 2004, p.4
• Electronic article
• Brown, Gerry. Some things are better left
  unsaid An introduction to the art of minding
  your own business. Self improvement Vol. 2 Iss.
  3 (1998) pp. 211-234. Date found June 23, 2001
  at http//www.selfimprovement.com/brown/html.

52
Step 7 Referencing

• Publication from a government body or
  organization
• United Nations Crime and Justice Information
  Network, 1999, Report on Crime Rates in
  Developing Countries, 1997-1998.
• Available http//www.uncjin.org/reports/199
  9/htmlAccessed 5 June, 2000
• Work with no apparent author
• The Economist, Do economic sanctions
  work?23 February 23, 1999/ Date found March
  25, 2000 at http//www.theeconomist.ukaccessed
  25 March, 1999.

53
Step 8 Final organization of paper

• Checklist of main ingredients
• Your paper should include the following
  sections
• Title Page if 10 pages or longer full
  information on first page other wise. That
  should include Your name, the course, the
  assignment, the date, the title of the paper.
• Table of Contents and List of Illustrations if 10
  pgs. or longer.
• Introduction with abstract, methodology, or other
  introductory material as instructed.
• Body (subsections as needed)
• Conclusion
• If you are using endnotes, place these after the
  conclusion.
• Works Cited
• Bibliography, Glossary, Appendix, or Index as
  appropriate.

54
Step 8 Final organization of paper

• Guidelines
• Introduction
• Engage the interest of the reader with a problem
  statement (why was the paper written, what is at
  issue here?
• Show the main idea and explain how it will be
  discussed.
• Provide a lead to engage the readers attention
  and interest.
• Include statement of the research question,
  thesis, methodology.
• Provide a summary of the problems/issues the
  paper encountered.
• Include an explanation of how the paper is
  organized.

55
Step 8 Final organization of paper

• Body.
• Things to Remember When Writing Your Body
  Paragraphs
• Use the same language in your body paragraphs
  that you did in your introduction. For instance,
  if you have phrased one of the points you wish to
  make a certain way in your introduction, phrase
  it the same way in your body paragraph.
• Devote each body paragraph to only one point. DO
  NOT try to include too much information into each
  paragraph.
• Make sure that you phrase everything clearly so
  that your specific audience can understand what
  you are trying to say.
• Paragraphs are used as a way to introduce a new
  idea, and break your paper down into a series of
  related points that you wish to make in support
  of your thesis statement.
• Each of Your Paragraphs Should Contain These
  Elements
• Paragraph Unity Paragraph Unity means that your
  paragraph develops one main point, that is set
  forth by your topic sentence, and that all of the
  sentences in the paragraph relate to and support
  that main point.
• Paragraph Development Paragraph Development
  means that you have included all of the necessary
  information, explanation and support for your
  main point or topic sentence so that your reader
  fully understands the point you are trying to
  make.
• Paragraph Coherence Paragraph Coherence means
  that you have developed your point in an
  organized and logical way, which shows the
  connections between your sentences and ideas.
• TRANSITIONS. One of the most important aspects
  of the body of your paper. Transitions between
  paragraphs as well as between sentences are
  essential in order for a paper to be readable,
  for the reader to fully understand the
  connections between the points you are trying to
  make and for the overall coherence of your essay.
  The use of transitions creates one unified paper
  instead of several smaller papers all thrown
  together under a similar larger topic.
• Where Do We Need Transitions?
• Between Sections -- This divides the major ideas
  or topics of your paper
• Between Paragraphs -- This divides the minor
  ideas of your writing because you must show a
  logical connection between your paragraphs.
• Between Sentences -- This shows the relationship
  between your sentences. These transitions are
  generally only a word or two, and can be done
  through the use of conjunctions which are words
  used to combine two sentences and show the
  relationship between them.
• Between Parts of a Sentence -- This shows how
  phrases connect within your sentences.
• Remember to use a variety of transitional
  expressions

56
Step 8 Final organization of paper

• Conclusion
• Similar to introduction, should be well-organized
  and brief.
• Summarize the argument.
• Show how/that the thesis has been proved, or the
  problem solved (if it has). If your research
  question included a thesis that did not pan out,
  explain that. Be honest. Often, in student
  papers, there is not enough time given the due
  date, a large enough research sample, or
  sufficient statistical analysis to honestly prove
  anything. So, the results are interesting, but
  not statistically meaningful.
• Suggest where further interesting research could
  be done.
• Make predictions leading from the research, if
  thats possible and appropriate.

57
Step 9 Final organization of paper

• Finishing your rough draft The last thing you
  should write is your abstract or executive
  summary if you plan to include either.
• Revision 1 At this stage, revise your
  introduction to go well with the conclusion.
  Often, the introduction is the worst part of a
  student paper because it is hard to get a paper
  going. So, it is the section that is most in
  need of revision. Always rewrite it after you
  write the conclusion. Then, run spell check and
  proofread carefully. Once all the parts have been
  put together, dont stop!
• Revision 2 This is just the end of your first
  draft. Go back and create another outline, this
  time of what you actually wrote. See if anything
  needs to be reworded or moved around for
  claritys sake. If you move things around in
  revision, then rework the Table of Contents, List
  of Illustrations. Check foot- or endnotes if you
  use them. If you used Word, the numbers
  probably fixed themselves, the footnotes fixing
  themselves, but the Endnotes will need to be
  rerun.
• Revision 3 Run spell check and proofread
  carefully yet again. As you revised, errors
  could have crept in And remember, often spell
  check wont catch errors in grammar, words that
  are words but not what you really meant, etc. Go
  over things with a fine tooth comb, looking for
  places that seemed clear originally, the language
  was less than felicitous, etc. You might want to
  hand it to a trusted friend. Its all too easy
  to see what we expect to see rather than whats
  actually there. And, we may not find things that
  lack clarity. After all, we know what we mean.

58
STEP 9 Proof Reading/Formatting

• Proofreading
• Examine the Introduction of your paper
• Is there a lead?
• Find the thesis, is it well defined?
• Does it summarize the issues ? how?
• Does it explain the approach to be used? How?
• Do you think it is a good introduction or not?
  Why? Could you improve it in any way? How?

59
STEP 9 Final Drafting (putting it all together)

• Title Page (first page)
• Title, name, course, date
• Contents Page and List of Illustrations (Second
  Page)
• Table of Contents
• List of Illustrations
• Figures
• Tables

60
STEP 9 Proof Reading/Formatting

• Examine the conclusion of your paper.
• Does it have all the necessary required features?
  
• Does it have the thesis statement ?
• Does it provide a summary to the main points
  mentioned in your paper?
• Does it suggest future recommendations?
• Do you think it is a good conclusion or not, why?
  Could you improve it in any way? How?

61
STEP 9 Proof Reading/Formatting

• Examine the layout, content, and grammar of your
  paper.
• Layout/Presentation Margins, spacing,
  indentation, correct citation, references, page
  numbers etc.
• Content/Organization Thesis statement, outline,
  introduction / body / conclusion, quotations,
  paraphrases, summaries and correct citations,
  reference list and bibliography. Transition
  words, cohesive devices, smooth transition
  between paragraphs.
• Grammar/Structure Spelling, tenses, punctuation,
  etc.

62
STEP 10 Proof Reading/Formatting

• Formatting
• If you are handing in a physical paper, use
  white, twenty-pound, 8 ½ by 11 inch paper
• Margins one-inch margins all around the text of
  paper left side, right side, and top and
  bottom.
• Spacing
• Double-space print papers, including quotations,
  notes, and the list of works cited. Indent
  paragraphs.
• Single space electronically submitted papers.
  Use full block style. Double space between
  paragraphs. Do not indent paragraphs.
• Page Numbers Number pages consecutively
  throughout the manuscript (including the first
  page) in the upper right-hand corner of each
  page, one-half inch from the top.
• Pages before the introduction are given Roman
  numerals
• Pages starting at the introduction are given
  Arabic numerals.

63
STEP 10 Proof Reading/Formatting

• Tables and Figures Tables should be labeled
  Table at the top and clearly named. Other
  material such as photographs, images, charts, and
  line-drawings should be labeled Figure and be
  properly numbered and captioned. Make sure that
  the source(s) of each are clearly stated within
  the caption. Be careful to segway into the
  illustration within the text, and discuss it
  afterwards. Tables and figures should be within
  the body of the paper, not afterwards.
• Binders Generally, the simpler the better. A
  simple staple in the upper left-hand corner of
  your paper should suffice. I actively dislike
  those slick binders with the slider plastic
  pieces that hold them together. They already are
  starting to come apart before I get them to my
  office. You wont get extra points for
  expensively bound papers.

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WRITING A RESEARCH PAPER Design And Assembly
Skills

• The end
• Bonnie Duncan
• July 11, 2008