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Myers PSYCHOLOGY 5th Ed

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Title: Myers PSYCHOLOGY 5th Ed


1
Myers PSYCHOLOGY (5th Ed)
  • Chapter 10
  • Thinking and Language
  • James A. McCubbin, PhD
  • Clemson University
  • Worth Publishers

2
Thinking
  • Cognition
  • mental activity associated with processing,
    understanding, and communicating information
  • Cognitive Psychology
  • the study of these mental activities
  • concept formation
  • problem solving
  • decision making
  • judgement formation
  • study of both logical and illogical thinking

3
Thinking
  • Concept
  • mental grouping of similar objects, events, or
    people
  • address
  • country, city, street, house
  • zip codes
  • Prototype
  • the best example of a category
  • matching new items to the prototype provides a
    quick and easy method for including items in a
    category (as when comparing feathered creatures
    to a prototypical bird, such as a robin.)

4
Thinking
  • Algorithm
  • methodical, logical rule or procedure that
    guarantees solving a particular problem
  • contrasts with the usually speedier but also
    more error-prone use of heuristics

5
Thinking
  • Heuristic
  • rule-of-thumb strategy that often allows us to
    make judgements and solve problems efficiently
  • usually speedier than algorithms
  • more error-prone than algorithms
  • sometimes were unaware of using heuristics

6
Thinking
  • Unscramble
  • S P L O Y O C H Y G
  • Algorithm
  • all 907,208 combinations
  • Heuristic
  • throw out all YY combinations
  • other heuristics?

7
Thinking
  • Insight
  • sudden and often novel realization of the
    solution to a problem
  • contrasts with strategy-based solutions
  • Confirmation Bias
  • tendency to search for information that confirms
    ones preconceptions
  • Fixation
  • inability to see a problem from a new
    perspective
  • impediment to problem solving

8
Thinking- Insight
  • Wolfgang Kohlers experiment on insight by a
    chimpanzee

9
The Matchstick Problem
  • How would you arrange six matches to form four
    equilateral triangles?

10
The Three-Jugs Problem
  • Using jugs A, B, and C with the capacitiesshown,
    how would you measure out the volumes indicated?

11
The Three-Jugs Problem
Given jugs of these sizes
Measure out this much water
Problem
A
B
C
1
21
127
3
100
2
14
46
5
22
3
18
43
10
5
4
7
42
6
23
5
20
57
4
29
6
23
49
3
20
7
15
39
3
18
12
The Candle-Mounting Problem
  • Using these materials, how would you mount the
    candle on a bulletin board?

13
Thinking
  • Mental Set
  • tendency to approach a problem in a particular
    way
  • especially a way that has been successful in the
    past but may or may not be helpful in solving a
    new problem

14
Thinking
  • Functional Fixedness
  • tendency to think of things only in terms of
    their usual functions
  • impediment to problem solving

15
The Matchstick Problem
  • Solution to the matchstick problem

16
The Three-Jugs Problem
  • Solution
  • a) All seven problems can be solved by the
    equation shown in (a) B-A-2C desired volume.
  • b) But simpler solutions exist for problems 6 and
    7, such as A-C for problem 6.

17
The Candle-Mounting Problem
  • Solving this problem requires recognizing that a
    box need not always serve as a container

18
Heuristics
  • Representativeness Heuristic
  • rule of thumb for judging the likelihood of
    things in terms of how well they seem to
    represent, or match, particular prototypes
  • may lead one to ignore other relevant information

19
Heuristics
  • Availability Heuristic
  • estimating the likelihood of events based on
    their availability in memory
  • if instances come readily to mind (perhaps
    because of their vividness), we presume such
    events are common
  • Example airplane crash

20
Thinking
  • Overconfidence
  • tendency to be more confident than correct
  • tendency to overestimate the accuracy of ones
    beliefs and judgements

21
Thinking
  • Framing
  • the way an issue is posed
  • how an issue is framed can significantly affect
    decisions and judgements
  • Example What is the best way to market ground
    beef- As 25 fat or 75 lean?

22
Thinking
  • Belief Bias
  • the tendency for ones preexisting beliefs to
    distort logical reasoning
  • sometimes by making invalid conclusions seem
    valid, or valid conclusions seem invalid
  • Belief Perseverance
  • clinging to ones initial conceptions after the
    basis on which they were formed has been
    discredited

23
Artificial Intelligence
  • Artificial Intelligence
  • designing and programming computer systems
  • to do intelligent things
  • to simulate human thought processes
  • intuitive reasoning
  • learning
  • understanding language

24
Artificial Intelligence
  • Artificial Intelligence
  • includes practical applications
  • chess playing
  • industrial robots
  • expert systems
  • efforts to model human thinking inspired by our
    current understanding of how the brain works

25
Artificial Intelligence
  • Neural Networks
  • computer circuits that mimic the brains
    interconnected neural cells
  • performing tasks
  • learning to recognize visual patterns
  • learning to recognize smells

26
Language
  • Language
  • our spoken, written, or gestured works and the
    way we combine them to communicate meaning
  • Phoneme
  • in a spoken language, the smallest distinctive
    sound unit

27
Language
  • Morpheme
  • in a language, the smallest unit that carries
    meaning
  • may be a word or a part of a word (such as a
    prefix)
  • Grammar
  • a system of rules in a language that enables us
    to communicate with and understand others

28
Language
  • Semantics
  • the set of rules by which we derive meaning from
    morphemes, words, and sentences in a given
    language
  • also, the study of meaning
  • Syntax
  • the rules for combining words into grammatically
    sensible sentences in a given language

29
Language
  • We are all born to recognize speech sounds from
    all the worlds languages

30
Language
  • Babbling Stage
  • beginning at 3 to 4 months
  • the stage of speech development in which the
    infant spontaneously utters various sounds at
    first unrelated to the household language
  • One-Word Stage
  • from about age 1 to 2
  • the stage in speech development during which a
    child speaks mostly in single words

31
Language
  • Two-Word Stage
  • beginning about age 2
  • the stage in speech development during which a
    child speaks mostly two-word statements
  • Telegraphic Speech
  • early speech stage in which the child speaks like
    a telegram go car using mostly nouns and
    verbs and omitting auxiliary words

32
Language
33
Language
  • Genes design the mechanisms for a language, and
    experience fills them as it modifies the brain

34
Language
35
Language
  • New language learning gets harder with age

36
Language
  • The straight-line part of the dance points in the
    direction of a nectar source, relative to the sun

37
Language
  • Linguistic Relativity
  • Whorfs hypothesis that language determines the
    way we think
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