Motivation

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Motivation

• Motivation
• a need or desire that energizes and directs
  behavior
• Instinct
• complex behavior that is rigidly patterned
  throughout a species and is unlearned

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Motivation

• Homeostasis
• tendency to maintain a balanced or constant
  internal state
• regulation of any aspect of body chemistry around
  a particular level
• Incentive
• a positive or negative environmental stimulus
  that motivates behavior

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Defining Motivation, and a Model

• Dynamics of behavior that initiate, sustain,
  direct, and terminate actions
• Model of how motivated activities work
• Need Internal deficiency causes drive
• Drive Energized motivational state (e.g.,
  hunger, thirst activates a response)
• Response Action or series of actions designed to
  attain a goal
• Goal Target of motivated behavior

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Types of Motives

• Incentive Value Goals appeal beyond its ability
  to fill a need
• Primary Motive Innate (inborn) motives based on
  biological needs that must be met to survive
• Stimulus Motive Needs for stimulation and
  information appear to be innate, but not
  necessary for survival
• Secondary Motive Based on learned needs, drives,
  and goals

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Hunger

• Homeostasis Body equilibrium balance
• Hypoglycemia Low blood sugar
• Hypothalamus Brain structure regulates many
  aspects of motivation and emotion, including
  hunger, thirst, and sexual behavior
• Feeding System Area in the hypothalamus that,
  when stimulated, initiates eating
• Satiety System Area in the hypothalamus that
  terminates eating

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Motivation

• Drive-Reduction Theory
• the idea that a physiological need creates an
  aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an
  organism to satisfy the need

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Fig. 12.1 Needs and incentives interact to
determine drive strength (above). (a) Moderate
need combined with a high-incentive goal produces
a strong drive. (b) Even when a strong need
exists, drive strength may be moderate if a
goals incentive value is low. It is important to
remember, however, that incentive value lies in
the eye of the beholder.
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Fig. 12.2 In Cannons early study of hunger, a
simple apparatus was used to simultaneously
record hunger pangs and stomach contractions.
(After Cannon, 1934.)
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Fig. 12.3 Location of the hypothalamus in the
human brain.
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More on Eating Behavior (Hungry Yet?)

• Neuropeptide Y (NPY) Substance in the brain that
  initiates eating
• Glucagon-like Peptide 1 (GLP-1) Substance in
  brain that terminates eating
• Set Point Proportion of body fat that is
  maintained by changes in hunger and eating point
  where weight stays the same when you make no
  effort to gain or lose weight

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Fig. 12.4 This is a cross section through the
middle of the brain (viewed from the front of the
brain). Indicated areas of the hypothalamus are
associated with hunger and the regulation of body
weight.
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The Final Word on Eating Behavior

• Leptin Substance released by fat cells that
  inhibits eating presently being studied for
  possible importance in controlling and losing
  weight
• External Eating Cues External stimuli that tend
  to encourage hunger or elicit eating these cues
  may cause you to eat even if you are stuffed
  (like Homer Simpson, who eats whatever he sees!)

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Taste

• Taste Aversion Active dislike for a particular
  food
• VERY difficult to overcome
• Bait Shyness Unwillingness or hesitation by
  animals to eat a particular food

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Eating Disorders Anorexia Nervosa

• Active self-starvation or sustained loss of
  appetite that seems to have psychological origins
• Control issues seem to be involved
• Very difficult to effectively treat
• Affects adolescent females overwhelmingly

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Fig. 12.6 Women with abnormal eating habits were
asked to rate their body shape on a scale similar
to the one you see here. As a group, they chose
ideal figures much thinner than what they thought
their current weights were. (Most women say they
want to be thinner than they currently are, but
to a lesser degree than women with eating
problems.) Notice that the women with eating
problems chose an ideal weight that was even
thinner than what they thought men prefer. This
is not typical of most women. In this study, only
women with eating problems wanted to be thinner
than what they thought men find attractive
(Zellner, Harner, Adler, 1989).
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Eating Disorders Bulimia Nervosa (Binge-Purge
Syndrome)

• Excessive eating usually followed by self-induced
  vomiting and/or taking laxatives
• Difficult to treat
• Prozac approved by FDA to treat bulimia nervosa
• Affects females overwhelmingly

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Causes of Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa

• Anorectics and bulimics have exaggerated fears of
  becoming fat they think they are fat when the
  opposite is true!
• Bulimics are obsessed with food and weight
  anorectics with perfect control
• Anorectics will often be put on a weight-gain
  diet to restore weight

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Thirst and Pain

• Extracellular Thirst When water is lost from
  fluids surrounding the cells of the body
• Intracellular Thirst When fluid is drawn out of
  cells because of increased concentration of salts
  and minerals outside the cell
• Best satisfied by drinking water
• Pain Avoidance An episodic drive
• Occurs in distinct episodes when bodily damage
  takes place or is about to occur

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Sex Drive

• Estrus Changes in animals that create a desire
  for sex females in heat
• Estrogen A female sex hormone
• Androgens Male hormones
• Non-homeostatic Independent of bodily need states

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Sexual Motivation

• Sexual Response Cycle
• the four stages of sexual responding described by
  Masters and Johnson
• excitement
• plateau
• orgasm
• resolution
• Refractory Period
• resting period after orgasm, during which a man
  cannot achieve another orgasm

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The Sexual Response Cycle
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Forces Affecting Sexual Motivation
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Sexual Motivation

• Same drives, different attitudes

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Sexual Motivation

• Changing attitudes

Source National Opinion Research
Center (University of Chicago) General Social
Survey
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Stimulus Drives

• Reflect needs for information, exploration,
  manipulation, and sensory input
• Yerkes-Dodson Law If a task is simple, it is
  best for arousal to be high if it is complex,
  lower levels of arousal provide for the best
  performance
• Arousal Theory Ideal levels of activation occur
  for various activities
• Arousal Activation of the body and nervous
  system
• Sensation Seeking Trait of people who prefer
  high levels of stimulation (e.g., the contestants
  on Eco-Challenge and Fear Factor)

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Fig. 12.7 Monkeys happily open locks that are
placed in their cage. Since no reward is given
for this activity, it provides evidence for the
existence of stimulus needs. (Photo courtesy of
Harry F. Harlow.)
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Rewards Affect Motivation
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Motivation

• Theory X
• assumes that workers are basically lazy,
  error-prone, and extrinsically motivated by money
  
• should be directed from above
• Theory Y
• assumes that, given challenge and freedom,
  workers are motivated to achieve self-esteem and
  to demonstrate their competence and creativity

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Motivation

• Achievement Motivation
• a desire for significant accomplishment
• for mastery of things, people, or ideas
• for attaining a high standard
• McClelland and Atkinson believed fantasies would
  reflect achievement concerns

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Learned Motives

• Opponent Process Theory Strong emotions tend to
  be followed by an opposite state strength of
  both emotional states over time
• Social Motives Acquired by growing up in a
  particular society or culture
• Need for Achievement Desire to meet some
  internal standard of excellence
• Need for Power Desire to have social impact or
  control over others

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Abraham Maslow and Needs

• Hierarchy of Human Needs Maslows ordering of
  needs based on presumed strength or potency some
  needs are more powerful than others and thus will
  influence your behavior to a greater degree
• Basic Needs First four levels of needs in
  Maslows hierarchy
• Lower needs tend to be more potent (prepotent)
  than higher needs
• Growth Needs Higher-level needs associated with
  self-actualization
• Meta-Needs Needs associated with impulses for
  self-actualization

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Fig. 12.12 Maslow believed that lower needs in
the hierarchy are dominant. Basic needs must be
satisfied before growth motives are fully
expressed. Desires for self-actualization are
reflected in various meta-needs.
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Maslows Hierarchy of Needs
Self-actualization needs Need to live up to ones
fullest and unique potential

• begins at the base with physiological needs that
  must first be satisfied
• then higher-level safety needs become active
• then psychological needs become active

Esteem needs Need for self-esteem, achievement,
competence, and independence need
for recognition and respect from others
Belongingness and love needs Need to love and be
loved, to belong and be accepted need to avoid
loneliness and alienation
Safety needs Need to feel that the world is
organized and predictable need to feel safe,
secure, and stable
Physiological needs Need to satisfy hunger and
thirst
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Types of Motivation

• Intrinsic Motivation Motivation coming from
  within, not from external rewards based on
  personal enjoyment of a task
• Extrinsic Motivation Based on obvious external
  rewards, obligations, or similar factors