Title: SO WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY
1SO WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?
- The science of behavior and cognitive processes.
(Baron, 2001)
2Parent Disciplines of Psychology
- Philosophy- Rene Decartes dualism.
- Other philosophers- interactionism
- Physiology
3In the beginning
- Wilhelm Wundt- "father of modern psychology.
- G. Stanley Hall- Founded the 1st laboratory of
Psychology at John Hopkins and helped to start
the APA and was the 1st president. - Structuralism
- Functionalism
- BehaviorismJohn B. Watson, B.F. Skinner
- Psychoanalytic Theory
- Humanistic Theory
4What should psychology study?
- Structuralism- Wilhelm Wundt psychology should
focus on analyzing the structure of consciousness
through Introspection. - Functionalism- William James ongoing use of
conscious experience it cannot be broken into
elements - stream of consciousness. - Behaviourism- John B Watson B. F Skinner
advocates the use of strict experimental
procedures through observable behaviour
(responses) in relation to the environment
(stimuli).
5What should psychology study?
- Gestalt psychologists Max Wertheimer the
whole is greater than the sum of its parts.
studied thinking, learning, and perception in
whole units, not by analyzing experiences in
parts. - Psychoanalytic theory Sigmund Freud the role of
the unconscious and other internal processes in
human behavior and mental disorders. - Humanistic Theory Free will and and by the
desire for personal growth. - Cognitive Theory Concerned with memory,
thinking, language, learning, decision making
feelings, and states of consciousness
6Arrange the following in the correct order
- William James created the slogan the whole is
better than the sum of it parts. - Wilhelm Wundt studied conscious experience by
examining its structures. - John B Watson focused on unconscious causes of
behaviour. - Sigmund Freud believed in free will and the
ability to make choices. - Max Wetheimer argued that psychologists should
focus on observable behaviour. - Carl Rogers focused on unconscious causes of
behaviour
7- PSYCHOLGY AS A SCIENCE
- relies on a systematic method of generating
hypotheses, collecting data, and explaining the
data.
8Goals of Psychology
- Describe
- Explain
- Predict
- and Control some behaviors.
9Essential components of the scientific method
- Accuracy
- Objectivity
- Skepticism
- Open- Mindedness
10Scientific Method vs. Common Sense
11ERRORS MADE WHEN USING COMMON SENSE
- Inconsistency and Contradictory
- The Confirmation Bias
- Availability heuristic
- Rational vs. Intuitive Thought
- Mood effects
12THEORY VS. HYPOTHESIS
- What is a theory?
- An explanation of a phenomenon based on empirical
findings. - What is a hypothesis?
- any statement, proposition or assumption that
serves as a tentative explanation of certain
facts.
13How Psychologists do scientific research
14METHODOLOGY-refers to the process of doing
research.
- Archival research The source of data that is
written records e.g. records from schools,
hospitals etc. - Observational research Naturalistic/Non-Participa
nt Participant Observation. - Surveys systematic way of asking people about a
topic- interviews, questionnaires. - Case studies detailed study of one or more
individuals - Correlational research measures relationship
between two variables- association not causation. - Experimental research manipulation of variables
to reach causal conclusion of the variables.
15Questions
- 1. What does it mean if two variables have a
positive correlation? - 2. In what type of study does a researcher study
an individual subject in depth? - 3. Which research method allows a researcher to
get information about a large number of subjects
relatively inexpensively and easily? - 4. When doing research involving deception with
human subjects, researchers have an obligation to
do what? - 5. Why is it problematic to draw cause-and-effect
conclusions based on correlative data?
16- Dr. A is studying whether babies are more
pleasant based on their interaction with more
smiling mothers. His hypothesis is that there is
an association between parents who smile more
and babies pleasant facial expression. - He conducts an interview with each parent to
assess if they smile often if any at all with
their children and the resultant level of
pleasant expression that babies have. - Dr. A found that on average, the babies with the
smiling mothers tend to have more pleasant babies
with than the expressionless mothers. - a. What is Dr. As research design?
- b. What is he interested in studying?
- c. How do these variables interact?
- d. What is the strength of the relationship?
- e. What is the direction the relationship?
17ETHICAL ISSUES IN PSYCHOLOGY
- CONDUCT
- INFORMED CONSENT
- DECEPTION
- CONFIDENTIALITY
- COMPETENCE
- DIVERSITY
18HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
19What is the Developmental Psychology?
- It is the field of study that examines patterns
of growth, change, and stability in behaviour
that occur throughout the entire human lifespan
(Feldman, 2000, p. 5). -
20When does human life begin?
- Human development begins at conception when the
fathers sperm cell unites with the mothers ovum
(egg cell). This one-cell (which is now
fertilized) is called a zygote. -
21PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
22PRENATAL STAGES
- Divided into three stages
- Germinal stage the sperm cell fertilize the ovum
- Embryonic stage after implantation the zygote
further develops into an embryo weeks 2-8- face,
arms, legs. - Fetal stage next 7 mths the human form becomes
increasingly visible
23Environmental Influences on Prenatal Development
- Maternal Age early 20s
- Maternal Health and Nourishment
- Infectious Agents
- Smoking, Drinking and Drug Use
- Alcohol
24What about the Fathers?
- the quality of the fathers sperm- the fathers
age is related in some cases of DS. - Alcohol use
25Fill in the blanks
- Once implantation of the zygote is completed, the
_____ stage of prenatal development begins. - Prenatal development is divided into three stages
__, __ and __. - This environmental factor goes straight into the
blood stream of the fetus and takes a longer time
to be eliminated from its system __ - The rapid multiplication of the fertilized cell
is known as __.
26- PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT DURING EARLY YEARS
27THE MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
- Motor development is the progressive change in
movement throughout the life cycle.
28There are 3 stages of motor development
- Infanthood- 0-2 yrs. rapid growth, simple
reflexes - Early Childhood- 2-6 yrs. move from an ugly
ducking to a swan, skip, hop, fine eye-hand
coordination - Later Childhood- masters developmental skills,
very good eye hand coordination, growth is
relatively slow.
29BRAIN DEVELOPMENT
30- The brain undergoes its most rapid development
during the first two to three years of the
childs life. - After age 3 the rate of the brain growth slows
but continues throughout childhood. - A neonate is born with nearly all their neurons,
however, other areas of brain development occur
after birth. - The most highly developed parts of the brain at
birth are the brain stem and midbrain these
parts are involved in arousal and involuntary
body functions, such as respiration.
31- There is also a thickening of the cerebral cortex
(outer portion of the brain) during the first 3
months of life. - This leads to a development of primary motor
areas (that control limb and other body
movement). - By 6 months, the primary sensory and motor areas
are highly developed.
32- SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT
33SENSORY DEVELOPMENT
- Sight, smell, sound, taste, touch and posture is
activated and in time strengthened neural pathway
- hearing provides the earliest link between the
mother and the newborn and continues to be the
source of comfort. - Vision takes longer to develop. Eye muscles are
weak hence eye coordination is poor.
34PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT
- Perception - the higher-order process of
integrating, recognizing, and interpreting
complex patterns of sensations - Perceptual development is an active process --
the infant actively participates in acquiring and
interpreting perceptual information. - Maximum perceptual development takes place
between the ages of three and a half and seven
years of age. - Infants learn through perceptual experience
perception leads to new knowledge, which in turn
influences future perception.
35Depth Perception
- Depth perception seems to develop by 6 8 months
at the same time that the infant begins to crawl.
- To determine the existence of depth perception in
children a device called a visual cliff was
developed by two Cornell University psychologists
in the late 1950s.
36Fill in the blanks
- If ___ are not stimulated then proper brain
development will not occur. - The process through which the infant actively
participates in acquiring and interpreting
sensory information is known as ____. - ___ is not only a source of comfort for the
infant but it provides the earliest link between
the mother and the newborn.
37 38- JEAN PIAGET
- Swiss child psychologist 1896 1980.
39Perspectives of Cognitive Development
- Structural-functional approach
- Information processing approach
40Piagets Structural-functional approach
- Structure- processing information
- Function- how the child adapts to his environment
- Children are active thinkers of their
environment- they use - 1) Adaptation
- a) accommodation- modification of existing
schemas - b) assimilation- incorporate new information
- 2) Organization
41 Piagets Stages of Cognitive Development
- Sensorimotor stage (birth-2 years) - figuring out
ways to make things to happen. -
- Preoperational stage (2 years-7 years) - growth
of symbolic activity. - Concrete Operational stage (7 years -11 years) -
uses logic to answer causal relationships - Formal Operations stage (12 years and up) -
quality of intelligence on which science and
philosophy is built.
42Criticisms of Piagets Theory
- He underestimated
- the cognitive talents of infants and young
children, eg. Object permanence. - The age at which a child achieve certain skills
- the importance of social interactions between
children and caregivers in the childrens
cognitive development. - Piagets theory gives little attention to the
impact of language development.
43Questions
- Lists in the correct order Piagets stages of
cognitive development briefly describe each
stage - A child is able to pretend that a large box is a
school bus. Piaget would suggest that she is in
the ___ - According to Piaget, cognitive adaptation to the
environment is achieved through the dual
processes of ___ and ___ - In Piagets theory, the process of modifying
existing cognitive structures in response to
experience and new information is called ______
44Moral DevelopmentRight Wrong
- Kolbergs theory has 3 levels
- Preconventional level - stages 12
- Conventional level - stages 34
- Post Conventional level- stages 56
45Kohlbergs moral development
- Stage 1 Morality is viewed in terms of
consequences - Stage 2 Morality is viewed in terms of our needs
or that of others - Stage 3 Morality is viewed in terms of societal
rules or norms - Stage 4 Morality is viewed in terms of social
rules/laws that is applied socially - Stage 5 Morality is viewed in terms of human
rights - Stage 6 Morality is viewed in terms of ethical
principles
46Criticisms of Kohlbergs Theory
- One criticism states that we have to consider the
cross-cultural aspect. - Concern about gender differences in moral
development of morality. Does Kohlbergs theory
apply to females? - Concern with the consistency of moral judgments.
47Questions
- The best advice to give pregnant women would be?
- According to Piaget, cognitive development
involves interplay between _____ and _____. - According to Kohlberg, at what level of moral
development do children tend to judge behaviors
in terms of the consequences they produce? - Erikson is to Piaget as
48At what age do infants begin to experience and
demonstrate discrete emotions?
- Research in this area focuses on facial
expression outward signs of distinct emotions. -
- 2 month old infants demonstrate social smiling in
response to human faces. -
- 2 month old infants show pain expressions more
than anger expressions. A few months later they
show anger more frequently than pain. - 3- 4 month old infants show laughter.
- As they grow older, infants acquire increasing
capacities to read the emotional expressions of
others.
49WHAT IS TEMPERAMENT?
- Stable individual differences in the quality and
intensity of emotional reaction. - 3 categories of temperaments
- Easy children (40) generally cheerful, adapt
readily to new experiences - Difficult children (10) are irregular in daily
routines, are slow to accept new situations - Slow--to-warm-up-children (15) relatively
inactive and show mild negative reactions when
exposed to unexpected event or new situations.
50ATTACHMENT John Bowlby
- Secure attachment
- Ambivalent Attachment
- Avoidant Attachment
- Disorganized attachment
51Key caretaking question Can I count on my
attachment figure to be available and responsive
when needed?
- Noavoidant
- Yessecure
- Maybeambivalent
52Secure
- Explores in mothers presence
- Cries when mom leaves
- Shows pleasure when she returns
- Mothering synchronous
53Insecure
- a. Avoidant
- Dont explore in moms presence
- Dont cry when mom leaves
- Dont respond to moms return
- Mothering unavailable, rejecting, neglectful
54Insecure
- b. Ambivalent/resistant
- Dont explore clingy
- Distressed when mom leaves
- Hard to soothe upon moms return
- Mothering inconsistent
-
55Insecure
- c. Disorganized
- Variable behavior
- Contradictory behavior
- Lack emotion
56Questions
- Personality is defined as the stable individual
differences in the quality and intensity of
emotional reaction. - Three types of temperaments are?
- Distinguish between securely attached adults and
an insecurely avoidant attached adults.
57- HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
- ADOLESENCE
- ADULTHOOD
58ADOLESCENCE
- Begins with puberty
- Physical changes - increase height and weight
known as a growth spurt - Cognitive changes - problem-solving skills, an
increased reliance on the use of symbols, logic
and abstract thinking. - Emotional changes - time of turmoil, joy,
confusion, depression (mood swings) - Challenges - Drugs and sex
59PARENTING STYLES THEIR EFFECTS ON ADOLESCENTS
- Authoritarian high in demandingness
(restrictive) and low responsiveness (rejecting).
- Authoritative parenting high in demandingness
and responsiveness. - Indulgent/ Permissive parenting - high in
responsiveness and low in demandingness. - Rejecting/ Neglectful parenting - low in both
demandingness and responsiveness.
60Eriksons Psychosocial Stages
- Trust Vs Mistrust- 1st yr of life
- Autonomy Vs Shame and Doubt- 2nd yr of life
- Initiative Vs Guilt- 3-5 yrs
- Industry Vs Inferiority- 6-11/12 yrs
- Identity Vs Role Confusion
- Intimacy Vs Isolation
- Generativity Vs Self absorbtion
- Integrity Vs Despair
61- Family Configuration and its Effects on the
Adolescent - Divorced
- Parent-Absent
- Blended Families
62ADULTHOOD
- As an adult, health may become a concern.
Psychological adjustments need to be made to
marriage, parenthood, career, the death of
friends and family, retirement, and ultimately,
ones own death.
63Challenges of Early- Middle Adulthood
- Marriage and family
- Transition to parenthood
- Career choice
64- Marriage and Family
- Stage 6- intimacy vs. isolation
- Three factors influence the choice of marriage
partner. - Availability need the opportunity to develop
the relationship first - Eligibility age, race, religion, politics, and
background comes into play here. - Attractiveness physical attractiveness,
psychological attractiveness understanding,
emotional supportiveness and similarity in values
and goals.
65- 2. The Transition to Parenthood
- Stage 7 Adulthood/Middle Adulthood concern
for family and future generations, becoming
parents. - Changes in marriage relationship becomes more
stressful, have less time for each other, less
spontaneity. - Marital satisfaction goes down during the child
rearing years, but increases when the children
leave the nest.
66- 3. Career Choice
- Choice of occupation and satisfaction goes a long
way toward self-esteem and identity. -
- Stage 7 Women experience menopause, men sometimes
experience mid-life crisis. -
67- Development during Late Adulthood
68- Stage 8 Maturity/Later Adulthood during this
period children have long left the nest and now
there are grandchildren. - Retirement is welcomed by most.
- With age, mental speed is reduced, memory loss is
apparent, some sensory capacity diminish - Ageism is the name given to discrimination and
prejudice against a group on the basis of age.
69Death and Dying
- Elizabeth Kubler-Ross 1960s. - Stage theory
- Denial
- Anger
- Bargaining
- Depression
- Acceptance
70Psychoanalytic Approach
- Sigmund Freud 1856-1939
- The Freudians and neo-Freudians
UNCONSCIOUS
71BASIC CONCEPTS OF PSYCHOANALYTIC
- Levels of Consciousness
- CONSCIOUS
- PRECONSCIOUS
- UNCONSCIOUS
- Basic Instincts - behaviour emerges as we attempt
to satisfy these innate biological drives. What
are they? - Structures of Personality- ID, EGO and SUPEREGO
- Defense Mechanisms
72DEFENSE MECHANISMS
- Repression
- Sublimation
- Denial
- Rationalization (Intellectualization)
- Fantasy
- Projection
- Regression
- Displacement
- Reaction Formation
- Compensation
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74Fill in the appropriate defense mechanism for
each example.
- Chad teases and annoys his kid brother Nathan
after he himself is bullied and picked on by his
older brother. - Despite overwhelming evidence a murder
conviction, Jay's mother refused to believe her
son could kill someone. - After the birth of his baby brother, five-year
old Larry began wetting his pants again. - The habitual drinker insists he hates the taste
of alcohol and drinks with friends "just to be
sociable. - Roger justifies his shoplifting by saying that
everyone shoplifts.
75FREUDS 5 PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF PERSONALITY
DEVELOPMENT
- Oral Stage- Birth to 1 yr
- Anal Stage- 1- 3yrs
- Phallic Stage- 3- 5 yrs
- Latency Period- 6- puberty
- Genital Stage- 11- 18 yrs
76Questions
- Feeling guilty over adolescent sexual exploration
is a result of which personality structure? - Unconsciously hating your younger brother might
be an example of? - Bobby tells his mom, "When I grow up I'm going to
marry you." Freud might consider this an example
of -
- An infant left to cry in her crib for long
periods of time might, according to Erikson,
develops ?
77The Psychoanalytic Approach After Freud
- Neo- Freudians
- Carl Jung (1875-1961)
- Alfred Adler (1870-1937)
- Karen Horney (1885-1952)
78BEHAVIOURAL- LEARNING APPROACH
- Behaviourists Overt (see-able) behaviour
- Personality is acquired through learning i.e
relatively permanent change in behavior that
occurs as a result of practice or experience - We learn by reinforcement, punishment and
observation.
79LEARNING THEORIES
- Classical Conditioning
- Operant Conditioning
- Observational Learning
80WHICH THEORY?
81Operant conditioning
- Associated with E.L.Thorndike B.F. Skinner
- key elements PUNISHMENT
REINFORCEMENT - any act that INCREASES behaviour REINFORCEMENT
- any act that DECREASES behaviour PUNISHMENT.
82Positive reinforcement
- INCREASES BEHAVIOUR BY GIVING REWARD AFTER
BEHAVIOUR IS PERFORMED. praise, candy - 1). Primary reinforcers natural/unlearned
does not require previous experience to be
effective. Usually related to an organisms
survival and are usually biological or
physiological. Example food, water, sex, love.
- 2). Secondary reinforcers conditioned, acquired
or learned reinforcers. Reinforcers may not be
inherently reinforcing, but there is a strong
association between them and other reinforcers.
Example money, praise, grades, promotions. -
- Preferred activities can also be used to
reinforce behavior, a principle referred to as
the Premack Principle.
83Negative reinforcement.
- TAKING AWAY SOMETHING IRRITATING WHEN THE
BEHAVIOUR IS PERFORMED nagging, alarm clock
- DO NOT CONFUSE WITH PUNISHEMNT!!!!
- Negative reinforcers are presented before a
response is made. - punishment decreases the rate of behavior
reinforcement ALWAYS increases behaviour.. -
-
84Punishment
- Positive punishment - person gets something they
dont like after doing the behaviour. They are
less likely to do it again.spanking,
reprimands. - Negative punishment - you take away something
they like after they do the behaviour. They are
less likely to do it again. time- outs, take
away toys.
85WHICH THEORY?
WAAAH!
BANG!
Nothing
86Classical Conditioning was developed by ???
- The CR usually produces a weaker effect than UCR.
- The order of pairing of the CS and UCS does
matter and is important
87WHICH THEORY?
1
2
88Observational Learning
- Albert BanduraKey principle - OBSERVATION.
- FOUR STEPS
- Attention -- notices
- Retention -- remembers
- Reproduction -- copy
- Motivation -- behaviour reproduced depending on
whether the environment appears to encourage it
(punishment or reinforcement)
89Evaluating the Behavioral-Learning Approach
- no free will very deterministic.
- Ignore inner conflicts and influence of
unconscious thoughts and impulses on behavior.
-
90Questions
- Sam is shy when around his friends, teachers, and
family. Skinner would suggest that this behavior
is? - One of the strong points of behavior theory is
its? - Distinguish between positive punishment and
negative punishment
91HUMANISTIC APPROACH
- Carl Rogers Abraham Maslow
- KEY PRINCIPLES
- personal responsibility and free will
- here and now rather than the past.
- personal growth and fulfillment moving towards
bigger goals self-actualizing
92THINGS TO REMEMEBER
- self- concept.
- most powerful drive is to become fully
functioning. - unconditional positive regard.
93MASLOWS HIERARCHY
- We need to self-actualize
- We have to master our lower needs before we could
move to the highest need. - Our personality and subsequently behaviors are
driven by or ability to master these needs.
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95Evaluating the Humanistic-Phenomenological
Approach
- Too much personal responsibility / free will.
-
- loosely defined concepts. What is
self-actualization, fully functioning? - Hard to do systematic research b/c concepts
cannot be defined or tested. How do you measure
self-actualizing, self-concept etc? -
96COGNITIVE APPROACH
- Key Principle WE ACT AS WE THINK
- beliefs, thoughts, perceptions and attitudes
about him/herself and the environment are key.
- A B C
irrational or rational
97The Trait/Biological Approach
- KEY Principle enduring characteristics
- Individuals differ in the amount of each of
these characteristics that they possess. - 1) stability, 2) consistency and generality and
3) individual differences
98- 1). Stability permanent, inherent elements of
personality. - 2). Consistency and Generality no trait is
expected to appear all the time or in every
situation. - 3). Individual Differences individuals are
unique