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SO WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY

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Title: SO WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY


1
SO WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?
  • The science of behavior and cognitive processes.
    (Baron, 2001)

2
Parent Disciplines of Psychology
  • Philosophy- Rene Decartes dualism.
  • Other philosophers- interactionism
  • Physiology

3
In the beginning
  • Wilhelm Wundt- "father of modern psychology.
  • G. Stanley Hall- Founded the 1st laboratory of
    Psychology at John Hopkins and helped to start
    the APA and was the 1st president.
  • Structuralism
  • Functionalism
  • BehaviorismJohn B. Watson, B.F. Skinner
  • Psychoanalytic Theory
  • Humanistic Theory

4
What should psychology study?
  • Structuralism- Wilhelm Wundt psychology should
    focus on analyzing the structure of consciousness
    through Introspection.
  • Functionalism- William James ongoing use of
    conscious experience it cannot be broken into
    elements - stream of consciousness.
  • Behaviourism- John B Watson B. F Skinner
    advocates the use of strict experimental
    procedures through observable behaviour
    (responses) in relation to the environment
    (stimuli).

5
What should psychology study?
  • Gestalt psychologists Max Wertheimer the
    whole is greater than the sum of its parts.
    studied thinking, learning, and perception in
    whole units, not by analyzing experiences in
    parts.
  • Psychoanalytic theory Sigmund Freud the role of
    the unconscious and other internal processes in
    human behavior and mental disorders.
  • Humanistic Theory Free will and and by the
    desire for personal growth.
  • Cognitive Theory Concerned with memory,
    thinking, language, learning, decision making
    feelings, and states of consciousness

6
Arrange the following in the correct order
  • William James created the slogan the whole is
    better than the sum of it parts.
  • Wilhelm Wundt studied conscious experience by
    examining its structures.
  • John B Watson focused on unconscious causes of
    behaviour.
  • Sigmund Freud believed in free will and the
    ability to make choices.
  • Max Wetheimer argued that psychologists should
    focus on observable behaviour.
  • Carl Rogers focused on unconscious causes of
    behaviour

7
  • PSYCHOLGY AS A SCIENCE
  • relies on a systematic method of generating
    hypotheses, collecting data, and explaining the
    data.

8
Goals of Psychology
  • Describe
  • Explain
  • Predict
  • and Control some behaviors.

9
Essential components of the scientific method
  • Accuracy
  • Objectivity
  • Skepticism
  • Open- Mindedness

10
Scientific Method vs. Common Sense
11
ERRORS MADE WHEN USING COMMON SENSE
  • Inconsistency and Contradictory
  • The Confirmation Bias
  • Availability heuristic
  • Rational vs. Intuitive Thought
  • Mood effects

12
THEORY VS. HYPOTHESIS
  • What is a theory?
  • An explanation of a phenomenon based on empirical
    findings.
  • What is a hypothesis?
  • any statement, proposition or assumption that
    serves as a tentative explanation of certain
    facts.

13
How Psychologists do scientific research
14
METHODOLOGY-refers to the process of doing
research.
  • Archival research The source of data that is
    written records e.g. records from schools,
    hospitals etc.
  • Observational research Naturalistic/Non-Participa
    nt Participant Observation.
  • Surveys systematic way of asking people about a
    topic- interviews, questionnaires.
  • Case studies detailed study of one or more
    individuals
  • Correlational research measures relationship
    between two variables- association not causation.
  • Experimental research manipulation of variables
    to reach causal conclusion of the variables.

15
Questions
  • 1. What does it mean if two variables have a
    positive correlation?
  • 2. In what type of study does a researcher study
    an individual subject in depth?
  • 3. Which research method allows a researcher to
    get information about a large number of subjects
    relatively inexpensively and easily?
  • 4. When doing research involving deception with
    human subjects, researchers have an obligation to
    do what?
  • 5. Why is it problematic to draw cause-and-effect
    conclusions based on correlative data?

16
  • Dr. A is studying whether babies are more
    pleasant based on their interaction with more
    smiling mothers. His hypothesis is that there is
    an association between parents who smile more
    and babies pleasant facial expression.
  • He conducts an interview with each parent to
    assess if they smile often if any at all with
    their children and the resultant level of
    pleasant expression that babies have.
  • Dr. A found that on average, the babies with the
    smiling mothers tend to have more pleasant babies
    with than the expressionless mothers.
  • a. What is Dr. As research design?
  • b. What is he interested in studying?
  • c. How do these variables interact?
  • d. What is the strength of the relationship?
  • e. What is the direction the relationship?

17
ETHICAL ISSUES IN PSYCHOLOGY
  • CONDUCT
  • INFORMED CONSENT
  • DECEPTION
  • CONFIDENTIALITY
  • COMPETENCE
  • DIVERSITY

18
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
19
What is the Developmental Psychology?
  • It is the field of study that examines patterns
    of growth, change, and stability in behaviour
    that occur throughout the entire human lifespan
    (Feldman, 2000, p. 5).
  •  

20
When does human life begin?
  • Human development begins at conception when the
    fathers sperm cell unites with the mothers ovum
    (egg cell). This one-cell (which is now
    fertilized) is called a zygote.
  •  

21
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
22
PRENATAL STAGES
  • Divided into three stages
  • Germinal stage the sperm cell fertilize the ovum
  • Embryonic stage after implantation the zygote
    further develops into an embryo weeks 2-8- face,
    arms, legs.
  • Fetal stage next 7 mths the human form becomes
    increasingly visible

23
Environmental Influences on Prenatal Development
  • Maternal Age early 20s
  • Maternal Health and Nourishment
  • Infectious Agents
  • Smoking, Drinking and Drug Use
  • Alcohol

24
What about the Fathers?
  • the quality of the fathers sperm- the fathers
    age is related in some cases of DS.
  • Alcohol use

25
Fill in the blanks
  • Once implantation of the zygote is completed, the
    _____ stage of prenatal development begins.
  • Prenatal development is divided into three stages
    __, __ and __.
  • This environmental factor goes straight into the
    blood stream of the fetus and takes a longer time
    to be eliminated from its system __
  • The rapid multiplication of the fertilized cell
    is known as __.

26
  • PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT DURING EARLY YEARS

27
THE MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
  • Motor development is the progressive change in
    movement throughout the life cycle.

28
There are 3 stages of motor development
  • Infanthood- 0-2 yrs. rapid growth, simple
    reflexes
  • Early Childhood- 2-6 yrs. move from an ugly
    ducking to a swan, skip, hop, fine eye-hand
    coordination
  • Later Childhood- masters developmental skills,
    very good eye hand coordination, growth is
    relatively slow.

29
BRAIN DEVELOPMENT
30
  • The brain undergoes its most rapid development
    during the first two to three years of the
    childs life.
  • After age 3 the rate of the brain growth slows
    but continues throughout childhood.
  • A neonate is born with nearly all their neurons,
    however, other areas of brain development occur
    after birth.
  • The most highly developed parts of the brain at
    birth are the brain stem and midbrain these
    parts are involved in arousal and involuntary
    body functions, such as respiration.

31
  • There is also a thickening of the cerebral cortex
    (outer portion of the brain) during the first 3
    months of life.
  • This leads to a development of primary motor
    areas (that control limb and other body
    movement).
  • By 6 months, the primary sensory and motor areas
    are highly developed.

32
  • SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT

33
SENSORY DEVELOPMENT
  • Sight, smell, sound, taste, touch and posture is
    activated and in time strengthened neural pathway
  • hearing provides the earliest link between the
    mother and the newborn and continues to be the
    source of comfort.
  • Vision takes longer to develop. Eye muscles are
    weak hence eye coordination is poor.

34
PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT
  • Perception - the higher-order process of
    integrating, recognizing, and interpreting
    complex patterns of sensations
  • Perceptual development is an active process --
    the infant actively participates in acquiring and
    interpreting perceptual information.
  •   Maximum perceptual development takes place
    between the ages of three and a half and seven
    years of age.
  • Infants learn through perceptual experience
    perception leads to new knowledge, which in turn
    influences future perception.

35
Depth Perception
  • Depth perception seems to develop by 6 8 months
    at the same time that the infant begins to crawl.
  • To determine the existence of depth perception in
    children a device called a visual cliff was
    developed by two Cornell University psychologists
    in the late 1950s.

36
Fill in the blanks
  • If ___ are not stimulated then proper brain
    development will not occur.
  • The process through which the infant actively
    participates in acquiring and interpreting
    sensory information is known as ____.
  • ___ is not only a source of comfort for the
    infant but it provides the earliest link between
    the mother and the newborn.

37
  • COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

38
  • JEAN PIAGET
  • Swiss child psychologist 1896 1980.

39
Perspectives of Cognitive Development
  • Structural-functional approach
  • Information processing approach

40
Piagets Structural-functional approach
  • Structure- processing information
  • Function- how the child adapts to his environment
  • Children are active thinkers of their
    environment- they use
  • 1) Adaptation
  • a) accommodation- modification of existing
    schemas
  • b) assimilation- incorporate new information
  • 2) Organization 

41
Piagets Stages of Cognitive Development  
  • Sensorimotor stage (birth-2 years) - figuring out
    ways to make things to happen.
  • Preoperational stage (2 years-7 years) - growth
    of symbolic activity.
  • Concrete Operational stage (7 years -11 years) -
    uses logic to answer causal relationships
  • Formal Operations stage (12 years and up) -
    quality of intelligence on which science and
    philosophy is built.

42
Criticisms of Piagets Theory
  • He underestimated
  • the cognitive talents of infants and young
    children, eg. Object permanence.
  • The age at which a child achieve certain skills
  • the importance of social interactions between
    children and caregivers in the childrens
    cognitive development.
  • Piagets theory gives little attention to the
    impact of language development.

43
Questions
  • Lists in the correct order Piagets stages of
    cognitive development briefly describe each
    stage
  • A child is able to pretend that a large box is a
    school bus. Piaget would suggest that she is in
    the ___
  • According to Piaget, cognitive adaptation to the
    environment is achieved through the dual
    processes of ___ and ___
  • In Piagets theory, the process of modifying
    existing cognitive structures in response to
    experience and new information is called ______

44
Moral DevelopmentRight Wrong
  • Kolbergs theory has 3 levels
  • Preconventional level - stages 12
  • Conventional level - stages 34
  • Post Conventional level- stages 56

45
Kohlbergs moral development
  • Stage 1 Morality is viewed in terms of
    consequences
  • Stage 2 Morality is viewed in terms of our needs
    or that of others
  • Stage 3 Morality is viewed in terms of societal
    rules or norms
  • Stage 4 Morality is viewed in terms of social
    rules/laws that is applied socially
  • Stage 5 Morality is viewed in terms of human
    rights
  • Stage 6 Morality is viewed in terms of ethical
    principles

46
Criticisms of Kohlbergs Theory
  • One criticism states that we have to consider the
    cross-cultural aspect.
  • Concern about gender differences in moral
    development of morality. Does Kohlbergs theory
    apply to females?
  • Concern with the consistency of moral judgments.

47
Questions
  • The best advice to give pregnant women would be?
  • According to Piaget, cognitive development
    involves interplay between _____ and _____.
  • According to Kohlberg, at what level of moral
    development do children tend to judge behaviors
    in terms of the consequences they produce?
  • Erikson is to Piaget as

48
At what age do infants begin to experience and
demonstrate discrete emotions?
  • Research in this area focuses on facial
    expression outward signs of distinct emotions.
  •  
  • 2 month old infants demonstrate social smiling in
    response to human faces.
  •  
  • 2 month old infants show pain expressions more
    than anger expressions. A few months later they
    show anger more frequently than pain.
  • 3- 4 month old infants show laughter.
  • As they grow older, infants acquire increasing
    capacities to read the emotional expressions of
    others.

49
WHAT IS TEMPERAMENT?
  • Stable individual differences in the quality and
    intensity of emotional reaction.
  • 3 categories of temperaments
  • Easy children (40) generally cheerful, adapt
    readily to new experiences
  • Difficult children (10) are irregular in daily
    routines, are slow to accept new situations
  • Slow--to-warm-up-children (15) relatively
    inactive and show mild negative reactions when
    exposed to unexpected event or new situations.

50
ATTACHMENT John Bowlby
  • Secure attachment
  • Ambivalent Attachment
  • Avoidant Attachment
  • Disorganized attachment

51
Key caretaking question Can I count on my
attachment figure to be available and responsive
when needed?
  • Noavoidant
  • Yessecure
  • Maybeambivalent

52
Secure
  • Explores in mothers presence
  • Cries when mom leaves
  • Shows pleasure when she returns
  • Mothering synchronous

53
Insecure
  • a.    Avoidant
  • Dont explore in moms presence
  • Dont cry when mom leaves
  • Dont respond to moms return
  • Mothering unavailable, rejecting, neglectful

54
Insecure
  • b.  Ambivalent/resistant
  • Dont explore clingy
  • Distressed when mom leaves
  • Hard to soothe upon moms return
  • Mothering inconsistent

55
Insecure
  • c. Disorganized
  • Variable behavior
  • Contradictory behavior
  • Lack emotion

56
Questions
  • Personality is defined as the stable individual
    differences in the quality and intensity of
    emotional reaction.
  • Three types of temperaments are?
  • Distinguish between securely attached adults and
    an insecurely avoidant attached adults.

57
  • HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
  • ADOLESENCE
  • ADULTHOOD

58
ADOLESCENCE
  • Begins with puberty
  • Physical changes - increase height and weight
    known as a growth spurt
  • Cognitive changes - problem-solving skills, an
    increased reliance on the use of symbols, logic
    and abstract thinking.
  • Emotional changes - time of turmoil, joy,
    confusion, depression (mood swings)
  • Challenges - Drugs and sex

59
PARENTING STYLES THEIR EFFECTS ON ADOLESCENTS
  • Authoritarian high in demandingness
    (restrictive) and low responsiveness (rejecting).
  • Authoritative parenting high in demandingness
    and responsiveness.
  • Indulgent/ Permissive parenting - high in
    responsiveness and low in demandingness.
  • Rejecting/ Neglectful parenting - low in both
    demandingness and responsiveness.

60
Eriksons Psychosocial Stages
  • Trust Vs Mistrust- 1st yr of life
  • Autonomy Vs Shame and Doubt- 2nd yr of life
  • Initiative Vs Guilt- 3-5 yrs
  • Industry Vs Inferiority- 6-11/12 yrs
  • Identity Vs Role Confusion
  • Intimacy Vs Isolation
  • Generativity Vs Self absorbtion
  • Integrity Vs Despair

61
  • Family Configuration and its Effects on the
    Adolescent
  • Divorced
  • Parent-Absent
  • Blended Families

62
ADULTHOOD
  • As an adult, health may become a concern.
    Psychological adjustments need to be made to
    marriage, parenthood, career, the death of
    friends and family, retirement, and ultimately,
    ones own death.

63
Challenges of Early- Middle Adulthood
  • Marriage and family
  • Transition to parenthood
  • Career choice

64
  • Marriage and Family
  • Stage 6- intimacy vs. isolation
  • Three factors influence the choice of marriage
    partner.
  • Availability need the opportunity to develop
    the relationship first
  • Eligibility age, race, religion, politics, and
    background comes into play here.
  • Attractiveness physical attractiveness,
    psychological attractiveness understanding,
    emotional supportiveness and similarity in values
    and goals.

65
  • 2. The Transition to Parenthood
  • Stage 7 Adulthood/Middle Adulthood concern
    for family and future generations, becoming
    parents.
  • Changes in marriage relationship becomes more
    stressful, have less time for each other, less
    spontaneity.
  • Marital satisfaction goes down during the child
    rearing years, but increases when the children
    leave the nest.

66
  • 3. Career Choice
  • Choice of occupation and satisfaction goes a long
    way toward self-esteem and identity.
  •  
  • Stage 7 Women experience menopause, men sometimes
    experience mid-life crisis.
  •  

67
  • Development during Late Adulthood

68
  • Stage 8 Maturity/Later Adulthood during this
    period children have long left the nest and now
    there are grandchildren.
  • Retirement is welcomed by most.
  • With age, mental speed is reduced, memory loss is
    apparent, some sensory capacity diminish
  • Ageism is the name given to discrimination and
    prejudice against a group on the basis of age.

69
Death and Dying
  • Elizabeth Kubler-Ross 1960s. - Stage theory
  • Denial
  • Anger
  • Bargaining
  • Depression
  • Acceptance

70
Psychoanalytic Approach
  • Sigmund Freud 1856-1939
  • The Freudians and neo-Freudians
    UNCONSCIOUS

71
BASIC CONCEPTS OF PSYCHOANALYTIC
  • Levels of Consciousness
  • CONSCIOUS
  • PRECONSCIOUS
  • UNCONSCIOUS
  • Basic Instincts - behaviour emerges as we attempt
    to satisfy these innate biological drives. What
    are they?
  • Structures of Personality- ID, EGO and SUPEREGO
  • Defense Mechanisms

72
DEFENSE MECHANISMS
  • Repression
  • Sublimation
  • Denial
  • Rationalization (Intellectualization)
  • Fantasy
  • Projection
  • Regression
  • Displacement
  • Reaction Formation
  • Compensation

73
(No Transcript)
74
Fill in the appropriate defense mechanism for
each example.
  • Chad teases and annoys his kid brother Nathan
    after he himself is bullied and picked on by his
    older brother.
  • Despite overwhelming evidence a murder
    conviction, Jay's mother refused to believe her
    son could kill someone.
  • After the birth of his baby brother, five-year
    old Larry began wetting his pants again.
  • The habitual drinker insists he hates the taste
    of alcohol and drinks with friends "just to be
    sociable.
  • Roger justifies his shoplifting by saying that
    everyone shoplifts.

75
FREUDS 5 PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF PERSONALITY
DEVELOPMENT
  • Oral Stage- Birth to 1 yr
  • Anal Stage- 1- 3yrs
  • Phallic Stage- 3- 5 yrs
  • Latency Period- 6- puberty
  • Genital Stage- 11- 18 yrs

76
Questions
  • Feeling guilty over adolescent sexual exploration
    is a result of which personality structure?
  • Unconsciously hating your younger brother might
    be an example of?
  • Bobby tells his mom, "When I grow up I'm going to
    marry you." Freud might consider this an example
    of
  • An infant left to cry in her crib for long
    periods of time might, according to Erikson,
    develops ?

77
The Psychoanalytic Approach After Freud
  • Neo- Freudians
  • Carl Jung (1875-1961)
  • Alfred Adler (1870-1937)
  • Karen Horney (1885-1952)

78
BEHAVIOURAL- LEARNING APPROACH
  • Behaviourists Overt (see-able) behaviour
  • Personality is acquired through learning i.e
    relatively permanent change in behavior that
    occurs as a result of practice or experience
  • We learn by reinforcement, punishment and
    observation.

79
LEARNING THEORIES
  • Classical Conditioning
  • Operant Conditioning
  • Observational Learning

80
WHICH THEORY?

81
Operant conditioning
  • Associated with E.L.Thorndike B.F. Skinner
  • key elements PUNISHMENT
    REINFORCEMENT
  • any act that INCREASES behaviour REINFORCEMENT
  • any act that DECREASES behaviour PUNISHMENT.  

82
Positive reinforcement
  • INCREASES BEHAVIOUR BY GIVING REWARD AFTER
    BEHAVIOUR IS PERFORMED. praise, candy  
  • 1). Primary reinforcers natural/unlearned
    does not require previous experience to be
    effective. Usually related to an organisms
    survival and are usually biological or
    physiological. Example food, water, sex, love.
  • 2). Secondary reinforcers conditioned, acquired
    or learned reinforcers. Reinforcers may not be
    inherently reinforcing, but there is a strong
    association between them and other reinforcers.
    Example money, praise, grades, promotions.  
  •  
  • Preferred activities can also be used to
    reinforce behavior, a principle referred to as
    the Premack Principle.

83
Negative reinforcement.
  • TAKING AWAY SOMETHING IRRITATING WHEN THE
    BEHAVIOUR IS PERFORMED nagging, alarm clock
  • DO NOT CONFUSE WITH PUNISHEMNT!!!!
  • Negative reinforcers are presented before a
    response is made.
  • punishment decreases the rate of behavior
    reinforcement ALWAYS increases behaviour..  
  •  
  •  

84
Punishment
  • Positive punishment - person gets something they
    dont like after doing the behaviour. They are
    less likely to do it again.spanking,
    reprimands.
  • Negative punishment - you take away something
    they like after they do the behaviour. They are
    less likely to do it again. time- outs, take
    away toys.

85
WHICH THEORY?
WAAAH!
BANG!
Nothing

86
Classical Conditioning was developed by ???
  • The CR usually produces a weaker effect than UCR.
  • The order of pairing of the CS and UCS does
    matter and is important

87
WHICH THEORY?
1
2
88
Observational Learning
  • Albert BanduraKey principle - OBSERVATION.
  • FOUR STEPS
  • Attention -- notices
  • Retention -- remembers
  • Reproduction -- copy
  • Motivation -- behaviour reproduced depending on
    whether the environment appears to encourage it
    (punishment or reinforcement)

89
Evaluating the Behavioral-Learning Approach 
  • no free will very deterministic.
  • Ignore inner conflicts and influence of
    unconscious thoughts and impulses on behavior.
  •   

90
Questions
  • Sam is shy when around his friends, teachers, and
    family. Skinner would suggest that this behavior
    is?
  • One of the strong points of behavior theory is
    its?
  • Distinguish between positive punishment and
    negative punishment

91
HUMANISTIC APPROACH
  • Carl Rogers Abraham Maslow
  • KEY PRINCIPLES
  • personal responsibility and free will
  • here and now rather than the past.
  • personal growth and fulfillment moving towards
    bigger goals self-actualizing

92
THINGS TO REMEMEBER
  • self- concept.
  • most powerful drive is to become fully
    functioning.
  • unconditional positive regard.

93
MASLOWS HIERARCHY
  • We need to self-actualize
  • We have to master our lower needs before we could
    move to the highest need.
  • Our personality and subsequently behaviors are
    driven by or ability to master these needs.

94
(No Transcript)
95
Evaluating the Humanistic-Phenomenological
Approach
  • Too much personal responsibility / free will.
  • loosely defined concepts. What is
    self-actualization, fully functioning?
  • Hard to do systematic research b/c concepts
    cannot be defined or tested. How do you measure
    self-actualizing, self-concept etc?
  •  

96
COGNITIVE APPROACH
  • Key Principle WE ACT AS WE THINK
  • beliefs, thoughts, perceptions and attitudes
    about him/herself and the environment are key.
  • A B C

irrational or rational
97
The Trait/Biological Approach 
  • KEY Principle enduring characteristics
  • Individuals differ in the amount of each of
    these characteristics that they possess.
  • 1) stability, 2) consistency and generality and
    3) individual differences

98
  • 1). Stability permanent, inherent elements of
    personality.
  • 2). Consistency and Generality no trait is
    expected to appear all the time or in every
    situation.
  • 3). Individual Differences individuals are
    unique
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