Cardiovascular System

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Cardiovascular System
Anatomy and Physiology
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• Two children were sitting outside a clinic. One
  of them was crying very loudly. 2nd Child Why
  are you crying? 1st Child I came here for a
  blood test. 2nd Child So? Are you afraid? 1st
  Child No. For the blood test, they cut my
  finger. At this, the second one started crying
  profusely. The first one was astonished. 1st
  Child Why are you crying now? 2nd Child I came
  for a urine test!

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Overview of Blood Circulation

• Blood leaves the heart via arteries that branch
  repeatedly until they become capillaries
• Oxygen (O2) and nutrients diffuse across
  capillary walls and enter tissues
• Carbon dioxide (CO2) and wastes move from tissues
  into the blood
• Oxygen-deficient blood leaves the capillaries and
  flows in veins to the heart
• This blood flows to the lungs where it releases
  CO2 and picks up O2
• The oxygen-rich blood returns to the heart

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Composition of Blood

• Blood is the bodys only fluid tissue
• It is composed of liquid plasma and formed
  elements
• Formed elements include
• Erythrocytes, or red blood cells (RBCs)
• Leukocytes, or white blood cells (WBCs)
• Platelets (Thrombocytes)
• Hematocrit the percentage of RBCs out of the
  total blood volume

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Composition of Blood
Figure 18.1
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Physical Characteristics and Volume

• Blood is a sticky, opaque fluid with a metallic
  taste
• Color varies from scarlet (oxygen-rich) to dark
  red (oxygen-poor)
• The pH of blood is 7.357.45
• Temperature is 38?C, slightly higher than
  normal body temperature
• Blood accounts for approximately 8 of body
  weight
• Average volume of blood is 56 L for males, and
  45 L for females

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Functions of Blood

• Blood performs a number of functions dealing
  with
• Substance distribution
• Regulation of blood levels of particular
  substances
• Body protection

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Blood Plasma

• Blood plasma contains over 100 solutes,
  including
• Proteins albumin, globulins, clotting proteins,
  and others
• Nonprotein nitrogenous substances lactic acid,
  urea, creatinine
• Organic nutrients glucose, carbohydrates, amino
  acids
• Electrolytes sodium, potassium, calcium,
  chloride, bicarbonate
• Respiratory gases oxygen and carbon dioxide

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Erythrocytes (RBCs)

• Biconcave discs, anucleate, essentially no
  organelles
• Filled with hemoglobin (Hb), a protein that
  functions in gas transport
• Contain the plasma membrane protein spectrin
  that
• Gives erythrocytes their flexibility
• Allows them to change shape as necessary

Figure 18.3
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Erythrocyte Function

• Erythrocytes are dedicated to respiratory gas
  transport
• Hemoglobin reversibly binds with oxygen and most
  oxygen in the blood is bound to hemoglobin
• Hemoglobin is composed of
• The protein globin, made up of two alpha and two
  beta chains, each bound to a heme group
• Each heme group bears an atom of iron, which can
  bind one to oxygen molecule
• Each hemoglobin molecule can transport four
  molecules of oxygen

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Erythrocyte Function
Figure 18.4a, b
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Hormonal Control of Erythropoiesis

• Erythropoietin (EPO) release by the kidneys is
  triggered by
• Hypoxia due to decreased RBCs
• Decreased oxygen availability
• Increased tissue demand for oxygen
• Enhanced erythropoiesis increases the
• RBC count in circulating blood
• Oxygen carrying ability of the blood increases

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Hormonal Control of Erythropoiesis
Figure 18.6
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Life Cycle of Red Blood Cells
Figure 18.7
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Leukocytes (WBCs)

• Leukocytes, the only blood components that are
  complete cells
• Are less numerous than RBCs
• Make up 1 of the total blood volume
• Can leave capillaries via diapedesis
• Move through tissue spaces
• Leukocytosis WBC count over 11,000 per cubic
  millimeter
• Normal response to bacterial or viral invasion

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Platelets

• Platelets are fragments of megakaryocytes with a
  blue-staining outer region and a purple granular
  center
• The granules contain serotonin, Ca2, enzymes,
  ADP, and platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)
• Platelets function in the clotting mechanism by
  forming a temporary plug that helps seal breaks
  in blood vessels

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White blood cells
Platelets
Red blood cells
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Neutrophil
Lymphocyte
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Monocyte
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Eosinophil
Lymphocyte
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Neutrophil
Basophil
Monocyte
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3
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2
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1
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Infection
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Sickle cell anemia
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Leukemia
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Hemostasis

• A series of reactions designed for stoppage of
  bleeding
• During hemostasis, three phases occur in rapid
  sequence
• Vascular spasms immediate vasoconstriction in
  response to injury
• Platelet plug formation
• Coagulation (blood clotting)

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Blood Typing

• When serum containing anti-A or anti-B
  agglutinins is added to blood, agglutination will
  occur between the agglutinin and the
  corresponding agglutinogens
• Positive reactions indicate agglutination

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Heart Anatomy

• Approximately the size of your fist
• Location
• Superior surface of diaphragm
• Left of the midline
• Anterior to the vertebral column, posterior to
  the sternum

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Heart Anatomy
Figure 19.1
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Heart Covering

• Pericardial physiology
• Protects and anchors heart
• Prevents overfilling

Figure 19.2
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Heart Covering

• Pericardial anatomy
• Fibrous pericardium
• Serous pericardium (separated by pericardial
  cavity)
• Epicardium (visceral layer)

Figure 19.2
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Heart Wall

• Epicardium visceral layer of the serous
  pericardium
• Myocardium cardiac muscle layer forming the
  bulk of the heart
• Fibrous skeleton of the heart crisscrossing,
  interlacing layer of connective tissue
• Endocardium endothelial layer of the inner
  myocardial surface

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External Heart Anterior View
Figure 19.4b
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Atria of the Heart

• Atria are the receiving chambers of the heart
• Each atrium has a protruding auricle
• Pectinate muscles mark atrial walls
• Blood enters right atria from superior and
  inferior venae cavae and coronary sinus
• Blood enters left atria from pulmonary veins

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Ventricles of the Heart

• Ventricles are the discharging chambers of the
  heart
• Papillary muscles and trabeculae carneae muscles
  mark ventricular walls
• Right ventricle pumps blood into the pulmonary
  trunk
• Left ventricle pumps blood into the aorta

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Gross Anatomy of Heart Frontal Section
Figure 19.4e
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Pathway of Blood through the Heart and Lungs

• Right atrium ? tricuspid valve ? right ventricle
• Right ventricle ? pulmonary semilunar valve ?
  pulmonary arteries ? lungs
• Lungs ? pulmonary veins ? left atrium
• Left atrium ? bicuspid valve ? left ventricle
• Left ventricle ? aortic semilunar valve ? aorta
• Aorta ? systemic circulation

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Pathway of Blood through the Heart and Lungs
Figure 19.5
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Heart Valves

• Heart valves insure unidirectional blood flow
  through the heart
• Atrioventricular (AV) valves lie between the
  atria and the ventricles
• AV valves prevent backflow into the atria when
  ventricles contract
• Chordae tendineae anchor AV valves to papillary
  muscles

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Heart Valves
Figure 19.9
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Heart Valves

• Aortic semilunar valve lies between the left
  ventricle and the aorta
• Pulmonary semilunar valve lies between the right
  ventricle and pulmonary trunk
• Semilunar valves prevent backflow of blood into
  the ventricles

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Heart Valves
Figure 19.10
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Heart Physiology Sequence of Excitation

• Sinoatrial (SA) node generates impulses about 75
  times/minute
• Atrioventricular (AV) node delays the impulse
  approximately 0.1 second
• Impulse passes from atria to ventricles via the
  atrioventricular bundle (bundle of His)

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Heart Physiology Sequence of Excitation

• AV bundle splits into two pathways in the
  interventricular septum (bundle branches)
• Bundle branches carry the impulse toward the apex
  of the heart
• Purkinje fibers carry the impulse to the heart
  apex and ventricular walls

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Heart Physiology Sequence of Excitation
Figure 19.14a
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Electrocardiography

• Electrical activity is recorded by
  electrocardiogram (ECG)
• P wave corresponds to depolarization of atria
• QRS complex corresponds to ventricular
  depolarization
• T wave corresponds to ventricular repolarization
• Atrial repolarization record is masked by the
  larger QRS complex

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Electrocardiography
Figure 19.16
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videos

• heart beat electricity
• http//medmovie.com/mmdatabase/flash/0007a.swf
• ecg
• http//medmovie.com/mmdatabase/flash/0038a.swf
• all animations
• http//science.nhmccd.edu/biol/ap2int.htmcardio
• heart valves
• http//www.wellesley.edu/Biology/Courses/111/Heart
  Valves.MOV
• visible heart video clips
• http//www.visibleheart.com/videoclips.html
• arrythmeias
• http//medmovie.com/mmdatabase/flash/0078a.swf
• heart attack
• http//medmovie.com/mmdatabase/flash/0072a_B.swf
•  

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Cardiac Cycle

• Cardiac cycle refers to all events associated
  with blood flow through the heart
• Systole contraction of heart muscle
• Diastole relaxation of heart muscle

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Phases of the Cardiac Cycle
Figure 19.19b
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Blood Vessels

• Blood is carried in a closed system of vessels
  that begins and ends at the heart
• The three major types of vessels are arteries,
  capillaries, and veins
• Arteries carry blood away from the heart, veins
  carry blood toward the heart
• Capillaries contact tissue cells and directly
  serve cellular needs

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Generalized Structure of Blood Vessels

• Arteries and veins are composed of three tunics
  tunica interna, tunica media, and tunica
  externa
• Capillaries are composed of endothelium with
  sparse basal lamina
• Lumen central blood-containing space surrounded
  by tunics

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Generalized Structure of Blood Vessels
Figure 20.1b
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Tunics

• Tunica interna (tunica intima)
• Endothelial layer that lines the lumen of all
  vessels
• In vessels larger than 1 mm, a subendothelial
  connective tissue basement membrane is present
• Tunica media
• Smooth muscle and elastic fiber layer, regulated
  by sympathetic nervous system
• Controls vasoconstriction/vasodilation of vessels
• Tunica externa (tunica adventitia)
• Collagen fibers that protect and reinforce
  vessels
• Larger vessels contain vasa vasorum

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Capillary Beds
Figure 20.4a
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Capillary Beds
Figure 20.4b
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Blood Pressure (BP)

• Force per unit area exerted on the wall of a
  blood vessel by its contained blood
• Expressed in terms of millimeters of mercury (mm
  Hg)
• Measured in reference to systemic arterial BP in
  large arteries near the heart
• The differences in BP within the vascular system
  provide the driving force that keeps blood moving
  from higher to lower pressure areas

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Systemic Blood Pressure
Figure 20.5
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Measuring Blood Pressure

• Systemic arterial BP is measured indirectly with
  the auscultatory method
• A sphygmomanometer is placed on the arm superior
  to the elbow
• Pressure is increased in the cuff until it is
  greater than systolic pressure in the brachial
  artery
• Pressure is released slowly and the examiner
  listens with a stethoscope
• The first sounds heard is recorded as the
  systolic pressure
• The pressure when sound disappears is recorded as
  the diastolic pressure

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Alterations in Blood Pressure

• Hypotension low BP in which systolic pressure
  is below 100 mm Hg
• Hypertension condition of sustained elevated
  arterial pressure of 140/90 or higher
• Transient elevations are normal and can be caused
  by fever, physical exertion, and emotional upset
• Chronic elevation is a major cause of heart
  failure, vascular disease, renal failure, and
  stroke