Expository Writing

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Expository Writing

• Grammar Points
• Dr. M. Connor

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Just hitting the high points

• The number of possible grammar problems in
  English writing can seem limitless!
• Im going to point out a few very common problems
  then discuss punctuation.
• Other problems well face as they come!

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The sentence fragment

• As you know, an English sentence must have a
  subject and a predicate (which contains the
  verb).
• If one part of a sentence is missing, you have a
  sentence fragment.
• While they can be used sparingly in prose for
  purposes of style, they are technically incorrect.

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Examples of sentence fragments

• Because the sky is blue.
• Because the sky is blue what? You need to
  complete the thought.
• For example, when I play my piano.
• This is a common type of error. In your head it
  may seem like a complete thought, but in my head
  Im saying, when I play the piano what?

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Revising sentence fragments

• There are two ways to fix sentence fragments
• by attaching it to a sentence, usually the one
  that went before it
• by adding whatever is necessary to make it a
  sentence.

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Method one

• Music videos began to make their appearance in
  1980. Some of them concert performances and some
  technological innovations.
• Music videos began to make their appearance in
  1980, some of them concert performances and some
  technological innovations.
• Fragment attached to the sentence, separated by a
  comma.

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Method two

• Music videos began to make their appearance in
  1980. Some of them concert performances and some
  technological innovations.
• Music videos began to make their appearance in
  1980. Some of them were concert performances and
  some were technological innovations.
• A verb, were, is added to the fragment, making it
  a sentence.

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Run-on sentences

• These fall into two categories
• comma splice
• fused sentence
• Both are always wrong
• unlike the sentence fragment that can be used for
  effect.

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The Comma splice

• These are two independent clauses (fancy term for
  a full sentence) linked together with a comma.
• Very common when using the word however
• The house looked run-down, however, the inside
  was in beautiful shape.

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Use a coordinating conjunction

• You can separate two independent clauses with a
  comma only when they are joined by a coordinating
  conjunction
• and
• but
• or
• nor
• for
• so
• yet

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Examples

• The mattress caught fire, the flames spread
  quickly.
• The mattress caught fire, and the flames spread
  quickly.

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Other ways to fix a comma splice

• Make separate sentences of the two clauses.
• Insert a semi-colon rather than a comma (more on
  this later).
• Make one of the independent clauses into a
  subordinate clause using a subordinating
  conjunction.

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Subordinating conjunctions

• Examples
• although
• after
• since
• when
• that, which, who
• After the mattress caught fire, the flames spread
  quickly.

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The fused sentence

• This type of error combines two independent
  clauses with no connecting word or punctuation
  between them.
• Dr. Ling is director of the hospital he also
  maintains a private practice.

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How to repair a fused sentence

• It can be corrected in the same way as a comma
  splice.
• But grammarians just like to point out that they
  are two different types of error!

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Mixed sentences

• A mixed sentence is a sentence whose parts do not
  fit together, either in grammar or in meaning.
• Examples
• The catcher dropped the ball is why the runner is
  safe.
• By seeing the accident made us start wearing seat
  belts.

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Beginning one way, ending another

• Be sure that the parts of your sentences,
  particularly subjects and predicates, fit
  together grammatically.
• During the worst part of the storm frightened all
  of us prepositional phrase used as a subject
• During the worst part of the storm, all of us
  were frightened. main clause revised to include
  a subject

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Subjects and predicates fit together

• Be sure that subjects and predicates of your
  sentences fit together in meaning.
• A prank that irks me is my brother when he jumps
  out from behind corners. the prank is not the
  brother
• A prank that irks me is my brothers he jumping
  out from behind corners. the prank is the
  jumping

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Punctuation

• Russell Baker, a Pulitzer Prize winning author,
  wrote an essay on how to punctuate for a series
  of essays on writing for schools sponsored by the
  International Paper Company in the 1980s.
• Ill be quoting from it here. And adding my own
  comments as well!

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Listening to punctuation

• When you write, you make a sound in the readers
  head.
• It can be a dull mumble or it can be a joyful
  noise, a sly whisper, a throb of passion.

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You need tools!

• One of the most important tools for making paper
  speak in your own voice is punctuation.

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Body language

• When you speak aloud, you are constantly
  punctuating.
• Your listener hears commas, dashes, question
  marks, exclamation marks as you shout, whisper,
  pause, wave you arms, roll your eyes, wrinkle
  your brow.
• Over 85 of spoken communication is non-verbal!

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Do you see the problem?

• We need to figure out how to get that 85 of
  missing body language onto the page!
• In writing, punctuation plays the part of body
  language.
• It helps readers hear you the wat you want to be
  heard.

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Lots of scary rules

• Dont let the rules scare you. Most of them are
  common sense.
• While there are a few odd rules, Ill tell you
  what they are, so dont worry.

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Two basic systems of punctuation

• The loose, open system which tries to capture the
  way body language punctuates talk.
• The tight, closed structural system, which hews
  closely to the sentences grammatical structure.
• Most of us use a little of both.

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Punctuation isnt a heal-all

• Punctuation marks cannot save a sentence thats
  badly put together.
• If you have to struggle over the punctuation, you
  have probably built a sentence thats never going
  to fly, no matter how much you tinker with it.
• Throw is away and rebuild a simpler one!

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Choosing the right tool

• There are 30 main punctuation marks in English!
• Most writing gets by on using less than a dozen.
• Im going to hit the highlights here.

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The comma ,

• This is the most widely used mark of all!
• It is also the toughest and the most
  controversial.
• Baker has seen aging editors almost come to blows
  over the comma.
• I have seen grown lawyers screaming curses at one
  another over the use of the comma! I do not lie!

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Comma policy

• Use the comma after a long introductory phrase or
  clause
• After stealing the crown jewels from the Tower of
  London, I went home for tea.
• If the introductory material is short, forget the
  comma
• After the theft I went home for tea.

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But, and theres always a but...

• But use the comma if the sentence would be
  confusing without it, like this
• The day before Id robbed the Bank of England.
• You mean the day before to be an introduction,
  but here it reads like a sentence fragment. You
  want this
• The day before, Id robbed the Bank of England.

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Series

• Use a comma to separate elements in a series.
• I robbed the Denver Mint, the Bank of England,
  the Tower of London and my piggy bank.
• Notice there is no comma before and in the
  series. This is common style nowadays, but some
  publishers use a comma there as well. Your
  choice.

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When using a conjunction

• As noted earlier, you use a comma when separating
  independent clauses that are joined by a
  conjunction like and, but, for, or, nor, because
  or so
• I shall return the crown jewels, for they are too
  heavy to wear.

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Mildly parenthetical word grouping

• Use a comma to set off a mildly parenthetical
  word grouping that isnt essential to the meaning
  of the sentence
• Boys, who have always interested me, usually
  differ from girls.
• Notice how we could lose the part in blue without
  effecting the meaning of the sentence.

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Another but

• Do not use commas if the word grouping is
  essential to the meaning of the sentence
• Boys who interest me know how to tango.
• See the difference between this and the slide
  before?

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Use in direct address

• Use a comma in direct address
• Your majesty, please hand over the crown.
• Officer, I swear I wasnt speeding!
• Dear sweet Dr. Connor, I havent done my homework.

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Between proper names and titles

• Always use a comma between proper names and
  titles
• Montague Sneed, Director of Scotland Yard, was
  assigned to the case.
• George W. Bush, President of the United States,
  is fighting for reelection.
• Marguerite Connor, Queen of the Universe, has
  absolutely no ego problems at all!

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Geographical address

• We use a comma to separate elements of
  geographical address
• Director Sneed comes from Chicago, Illinois, and
  now lives in London, England.
• The address for Fu Jen is 510 Jung Jeng Rd.,
  Hsinchuang, 24205, Taipei County, Taiwan, ROC.

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Generally speaking

• Use a comma where youd pause briefly in speed.
  For a long pause of completion of thought, use a
  period.
• If you know music, a comma is a one-beat rest, a
  period is a two-beat rest.

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Semicolon

• A more sophisticated mark than the comma, the
  semicolon separates two independent clauses, but
  keeps them tightly linked.
• I steal crown jewels she steals hearts.
• One colleague explained it by saying you use a
  semicolon when you want to link two sentences
  like they were cousins.

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Other semicolon advice

• I once had an editor who asked me
• What does a semicolon sound like?
• Like a period, I answered.
• Use a period then.
• Perhaps thats a bit reductionist, but he had a
  point.
• If youre unsure as to how to use one, dont!

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Some semicolon rules

• Use a semicolon to separate main clauses not
  joined by a coordinating conjunction.
• There are six museums in the city the largest is
  the Museum of Fine Arts.
• Use a semicolon to separate main clauses joined
  by a conjunctive adverb.
• The reporters waited for an explanation of the
  policy change indeed, they felt they were
  entitled to it.

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Conjunctive adverbs

• Accordingly
• also
• anyway
• besides
• certainly
• consequently
• finally
• further
• furthermore
• hence
• however
• incidentally
• meanwhile

• Moreover
• namely
• nevertheless
• next
• nonetheless
• now
• otherwise
• similarly
• still
• then
• thereafter
• thus
• undoubtedly

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On with the rules

• Use a semicolon to separate main clauses if they
  are very long or complex or if they contain
  commas, even when they are joined by a
  coordinating conjunction.
• The literacy rate in Indonesia, Malaysia and
  Singapore is about 50 but in Cambodia and Laos
  the rate is 70 and 80 respectively.
• The announcement that classes were cancelled were
  posted all over campus yet dozens of students
  showed up anyway.

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Dash -- and Parenthesis ( )

• Warning! Use sparingly.
• The dash SHOUTS.
• Parenthesis whisper.
• Shout too often and people stop listening (think
  of when your dad starts).
• Whisper too much and people become suspicious of
  you.

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The Dash

• The dash creates a dramatic pause to prepare for
  an expression needing strong emphasis.
• Ill marry you--if youll rob the Post Office
  with me.
• Care, tenderness, a sense of humor--Ryan
  possessed all of these.
• Some of the largest animals--elephants, rhinos,
  and blue whales--are in danger of extinction.

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Parenthesis

• Parenthesis help you pause quietly to drop in
  some chatty information not vital to your story.
• Despite Bettys daring spirit (I love robbing
  your piggy bank, she often said), she was a
  terrible dancer.
• William Butler Yeats (1865-1939) was not only a
  poet but also a playwright and essayist, and some
  say, a seer into the future.

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Quotation marks

• These tell the reader youre reciting the exact
  words someone said or wrote
• Betty said, I cant tango.
• OR
• I cant tango, Betty said.
• Notice the comma comes before the quote marks in
  the first example, but comes before them in the
  second. Not logical? Never mind, do it that way
  anyway.

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More uses

• We also use quotation marks around the titles of
  a short story, poem, song or book chapter. In
  other words, part of a whole work, which we would
  italicize.
• My Happy Ending is a great song on Avril
  Levignes album Under My Skin.
• The Second Coming is from W.B. Yeatss volume
  Michael Robartes And The Dancer, 1921.

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The colon

• A colon is a tip-off to get ready for whats
  next a list, a long quotation, or an
  explanation.
• The message is Stay on your toes its coming
  at you!

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The apostrophe

• This causes a big headache when it comes to
  possessive nouns.
• If the noun is singular, add s
• I hated Bettys tango.
• If the noun is plural, simply add an apostrophe
  after the s.
• Those are the girls coats.

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Now for the headache part

• The same applies for singular nouns ending in s
  like Dickens and words ending in z like Lopez
• This is Dickenss best book.
• This is Mr. Lopezs car.
• And now in the plural, add es
• This is the Dickenses cottage.
• This is the Lopezes boat.

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Possessive pronouns

• Possessive pronoun his, hers and its have no
  apostrophe.
• If you write its, you are saying it is.

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Contractions

• The other use for apostrophes is in contractions.
• Can not ? cant and so on.

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Ending punctuation . ? !

• Remember to end your sentences with a period if
  they need one.
• Questions, of course, need to take a question
  mark.
• You can also use an exclamation point, but do you
  have to?
• Too many times they make you sound breathless and
  silly. Use your words to generate excitement,
  not a bunch of !!!!