Part 3: Qualitative Research

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Part 3 Qualitative Research
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• I think metaphorically of qualitative research
  as an intricate fabric composed of minute
  threads, many colors, different textures, and
  various blends of material. The fabric is not
  explained easily or simply
• -John W. Creswelll

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Qualitative vs. Quantitative

• Basic Criticisms of Quantitative Research
• Preoccupied with control
• Reductionist
• Top down
• Misses big picture
• Basic Criticisms of Qualitative Research
• Subjective
• Biased
• Results not generalizable
• Unable to identify causal relationships

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What is Qualitative Research?

• Many researchers are more interested in the
  quality and meaning of a particular activity
• Research studies that investigate the quality of
  relationships, activities, situations, or
  materials are frequently referred to as
  Qualitative Research.
• There is a greater emphasis on holistic
  description.

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Quantitative vs. Qualitative
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General Characteristics of Qualitative Research

• Five general features of Qualitative Research
• The natural setting is a direct source and key
  element
• Collection is in the form of words or pictures
• Researchers are concerned with how things occur
• Construction of a picture while data is being
  collected vs. a priori hypotheses.
• Special interest in the participants thoughts

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Philosophical Assumptions

• Differences between the paradigms of Qualitative
  vs. Quantitative are expressed in how one
  approaches an investigation.
• Positivism and post-positivism
• What are they?
• How do they view reality?
• Critical theory and Constructivism
• What are they?
• How do they view reality?

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Philosophical Assumptions

• Ontology
• What is the nature or reality?
• Epistemology
• What is relationship between the researcher and
  that which is being researched?
• Axiology
• What is the role of values?
• Rhetorical
• What is the language of research?
• Methodological
• What is the process of research?
• Do these differ for qualitative and quantitative
  researchers?

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Paradigms

• Positivism
• Deterministic
• Reductionism
• Empirical observation and measurement
• Methods
• Experimental, manipulative, verification

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Paradigms (Cont.)

• Postpositivism
• Theory testing
• Probabilistic
• Know reality imperfectly
• Replication
• Methods
• Experimental, surveys, causal-comparative,
  observational, interviews

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Paradigms (Cont.)

• Critical theory
• Political
• Empowerment
• Collaborative
• Change-oriented
• Social justice
• Methods
• Participatory action research

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Paradigms (cont.)

• Constructivism
• Understanding
• Multiple participant meanings
• Social construction
• Theory generation
• Methods
• Grounded theory, case studies, narrative research

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Steps in Qualitative Research

• All qualitative studies have a distinct starting
  and ending point.
• The steps are as follows (in some cases)
• Identification of the phenomenon to be studied
• Identification of the participants in the study
  (purposive sample collecting)
• Generation of hypotheses
• Data collection (continual observance)
• Data analysis
• Interpretation/Conclusions

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Approaches to Qualitative Research

• Five traditions (Creswell, 1998) 1
• Biographical Study
• Phenomenological Study
• Grounded Theory Study
• Ethnography
• Case Study
• Action Research

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Biography

• A study of an individual and her or his
  experiences
• As told to the researcher
• As found in documents
• As written by the individual
• Biography
• Written by someone other than the individual
• Autobiography
• Written by the individual

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Phenomenological Study

• A persons construction of the meaning of a
  concept (phenomenon)
• Attempts to understand participants perspectives
  and views of social realities
• Attempt to understand what a specific experience
  is like by describing it as found in concrete
  situations as it appears to people living it.
• The researcher often has personal experience with
  the phenomenon
• Example of topics
• being left out, falling asleep, being afraid
  of the dark

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Grounded Theory

• A general research method
• Generate or discover theory
• That is grounded in data that is systematically
  collected and analyzed.
• Recursive process of sampling and analysis
• Theory is developed during the course of the
  study.

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Ethnography

• A description and interpretation of a cultural or
  social group.
• Examines a groups
• Patterns of behavior
• Customs
• Ways of Life
• Participant Observation

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Case Study

• Develops an in-depth analysis of a single case or
  multiple cases.
• Much can be learned from study one individual,
  one classroom, one school, or one school
  district.
• Types
• Intrinsic
• Interested in understanding a specific case
• Instrumental
• Interested in understanding something larger than
  the case.
• e.g., study of a teacher who uses phonics
• Multiple case study
• Additional cases are added.
• Why?

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Action Research

• Conducted by one or more individuals for the
  purpose of solving a problem.
• Typically motivated by an immediate problem.
• Types
• Practical Action Research
• Primary purpose is to improve practice.
• Participatory Action Research
• Primary goal is empower individuals and groups to
  bring about social change.

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Qualitative Sampling

• Qualitative research uses sampling strategies
  that produce samples that are predominantly small
  and non random.
• Keeps in line with the emphasis on in-depth
  description of participants perspectives and
  context.
• Purposive sampling ensures that the best
  participants are included.

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Purposive Sampling

• Researcher identifies a research topic
• Then selects a sample of individuals who will
  provide relevant information.
• When a number of criteria are used the technique
  is called criterion purposive sampling.

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Sampling

• Purposive
• High school teachers were asked to select
  students who, in their opinion, had the greatest
  likelihood of academic failure.
• Purposive Criterion Sampling
• African American males who were age 20 to 25,
  high school graduates, and married were the
  identified and interviewed for this study.

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Group Discussion

• Name a general topic in which qualitative
  researchers might conduct research.
• Name at least four demographic variables that
  might be of interest to a researcher of this
  topic.

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Sampling (cont.)

• In Quantitative terms purposive samples are
  non-probability samples
• Sampling methods that do not have random sampling
  at any stage of sample selection
• Convenience sampling
• Includes whoever is available
• Purposive sampling (a.k.a.) judgmental sampling
• Used often for qualitative studies
• In a quantitative framework what problem does
  this create in the interpretation of the results?
• How would a qualitative researcher respond to
  this critique?

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Sampling in Qualitative Research

• Purposive Sampling Techniques
• Typical Sample
• Extreme or Deviant Case
• Unusual or exceptional.
• Homogenous sampling
• No diversity. Sample has similar characteristics
• Snowball sampling
• selecting few participants who identify other
  good participants
• Confirming Sample
• Selected to confirm or disconfirm preliminary
  findings.
• Maximal Variation
• Sample as diverse as possible.

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Sample size

• Qualitative studies are generally smaller.
• Why?
• What criteria is used by some qualitative
  researchers to determine when to stop sampling?
• Explain how it works.

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Generalization in Qualitative Research

• A generalization is usually thought of as a
  statement or claim that applies to more than one
  individual, group, or situation.
• The value of a generalization is that it allows
  us to have expectations about the future.
• A limitation of Qualitative Research is that
  there is seldom justification for generalizing
  the findings of a particular study.
• Why?
• Do quantitative studies differ?
• Why? Why not?

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In Groups

• According to Stanovich
• What problems exist with case studies?
• What is the place of the case study?
• What is the vividness problem?
• Give an example of it.
• What do YOU think the place of the case study is
  in educational (or social) research?