The Age of the Isms

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The Age of the Isms

• Romantacism/Liberalism/Feminism
• Socialism/Constitutionalism/Nationalism
  Imperialism/Radicalism/Darwinism
  Industrialism/Conservatism/Monarchism
• Republicanism/Humanitarianism

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1.)

• The victorious powers (Britain, Austria, Prussia,
  and Russia, plus a host of lesser powers) were
  meeting in Vienna in 1814. They had several
  issues of importance
• -Keeping newly conquered France contained, so as
  to isolate revolutionary ideas and control
  Frances military.
• -Create a settlement that would preserve peace
  for years to come. This meant setting up a
  situation where none of these four could be
  tempted to strive for domination.

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2.)

• France was stripped of a few colonies and some
  territory and paid no reparations. There was no
  spirit of revenge fomented in France.
• They installed several safeguards against French
  expansion
• Holland and Belgium were combined as a northern
  bulwark.
• Prussia was given territory on Frances eastern
  border so as to contain the ancient French
  ambitions of gaining the Rhineland.

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3.)

• It meant here basically what it always had since
  Westphalia in 1648 an international equilibrium
  whereby no power would gain the upper hand over
  any other, so as to preserve peace. No power
  would be allowed to dominate.
• To insure this, each of the four divided up the
  spoils of the French Empire, gaining new
  territories and enlarging their own Empires.

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• It almost came to war when Alexander, the czar of
  Russia, demanded a new Polish state and the
  Prussians demanded the sizeable kingdom of
  Saxony. This alarmed the British and Austrians,
  who turned to France for support. Ultimately a
  compromise was reached that satisfied all four
  powers. Additionally, France regained its place
  at the table of Great Powers and was no longer
  a pariah.

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4.)

• The period when Napoleon escaped from exile and
  raised an army. He was defeated at Waterloo in
  Belgium.

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5.)

• The Holy Alliance was anything but. Russia,
  Austria, and Prussia, fearing the recently
  unleashed forces of revolution, decreed to rule
  by Christian principals, as opposed to liberal
  principals. It was nothing more than an open
  declaration of repression.

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Czar Alexander
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• Soon, revolution did rear its head again in
  Spain and Naples. The Great Powers were
  horrified. They immediately called a Congress at
  Troppau. In no time, the Austrians and French
  marched in and crushed these movements.
• The congress system continued for years, kind of
  a forerunner to the U.N. The Great powers would
  meet and discuss major issues in the hopes of
  heading off war. For the most part it worked up
  until 1914.

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6.)

• Klemens von Metternich was the living symbol of
  his age, which is often called the Age of
  Metternich (1815-1848). A wealthy noble, his
  well connected wife enabled him to become a
  diplomat and servant of Austria. Loyal to his
  class, he was conservative to the core and has
  come to represent the reactionary politics of the
  post-Revolution Years.

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Metternich

• He believed liberalism had been responsible for
  30 years of war in America and Europe. He also
  believed liberals were conspiring to impose their
  beliefs on the established social order. He
  believed liberals stirred up the lower classes
  for their own political gains (rabble-rousing).
• He was also repulsed by nationalism and
  nationalistic aspirations. Being an Austrian
  noble, its easy to see why.

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Prince Metternich
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7.)

• Austria-Hungary, as we have seen, was created
  upon the end of the 30 Years War. The Hapsburgs,
  unable to create a German Empire, had settled for
  creating a Central European Empire through
  marriage and war. It was composed of three main
  parts

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The Austrian Empire

• Austria Proper The Germanic homeland, Tyrol,
  Styria, Carniola, and Carinthia. 25 of the
  population.
• Hungary the old Magyars or Huns. A fiercely
  proud group.
• Bohemia (the Czechs) centered around Prague.
• Also included were Italians, Poles, Slovaks,
  Romanians, Serbs, and Croats.
• Nationalism was the spark that could blow a
  cobbled together state like this apart.

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8.)

• Classical liberalism is not the liberalism of
  21st century America. This original form of
  liberalism meant representative government, and
  individual rights. Basically, political
  liberalism, not social liberalism.
• Modern American liberalism generally favors
  expanded government spending to meet social
  needs, and a desire to regulate the economy. This
  is what contrasts its most sharply with
  classical liberalism, which called for
  unrestricted private enterprise, also known as
  laissez-faire.

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9.)

• Laissez-faire means, to let people do as they
  will. Also commonly said to mean hands off. It
  was the basis of the 19th century economic
  thought. First expressed by Adam Smith, it was
  believed that unrestricted competition would mean
  better economic health for everyone, not just the
  rich. As Britain underwent the industrial
  revolution, the old mercantilist laws were thrown
  off and liberal economic thought prevailed.
• This form of thought is best illustrated by
  Thomas Malthus and David Ricardo.

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The Dismal Science

• Malthus argued that populations would always grow
  faster than food supplies. Thus, he predicted
  Industrialization would lead to ever-greater
  cycles of famine, starvation, and then war.
• Ricardo used this theory to advance his iron law
  of wages. This meant that because populations
  would be high, workers would never be able to
  command more than subsistence or starvation
  wages, nor should they. To give them more would
  be interference in the natural order of things.
• Because of the gloomy predictions of Malthus and
  Ricardo, economics has henceforth been called
  the Dismal Science.

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10.) Nationalism

• usually evolves from a sense of cultural unity,
  especially in a sense of common language or
  territory.
• nationalists usually seek to turn cultural unity
  to political reality, with the creation of a
  nation-state.
• modern nationalism has its roots in the French
  Revolution and the reforms of Napoleon Bonaparte.

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• Between 1815-1850, most people who believed in
  nationalism also embraced liberalism. This was
  because both isms hinge on a belief in the
  creativity and nobility of the people. The
  people could elect their leaders and govern
  themselves only if the people were united by
  common traditions and loyalties. Liberals and
  nationalists also agreed that a common language
  was essential.

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• The negative aspect of nationalism was that it
  was tough to illustrate the unique qualities of a
  people without contrasting them against another
  people, an us vs. them situation. It was easy
  to corrupt this into twisted ideals of national
  superiority or a national mission (Manifest
  Destiny).

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11.)

• Socialism is the idea that society should be
  organized or reorganized to establish equality,
  cooperation, and a sense of community.
• The birth of socialism is seen in the French
  Revolution. Aside from the obvious class
  differences we see in it, the Revolution also
  showed that a centralized, planned economy could
  make a nation very strong.

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• These early socialists also believed that
• all economies should be organized and planned by
  central governments for the benefit of all.
• they wanted to help the poor and protect them
  from the rich.
• private property should either be controlled by
  the government or be eliminated all together.

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12.)

• The socialist Charles Fourier believed that
  marriage and middle class life were traps for
  women, that women should be totally emancipated.
  He believed marriage nothing more than a
  financial contract between a groom and a womens
  father. He called for abolition, sexual
  liberation, and free love. As a result, feminism
  has always had a radical taint and often was
  considered a branch of socialist-communist
  thought. (Pinko radicalism).

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• Other socialists were quite influential
• Pierre Proudhon declared that private property
  was actually the stolen property of the worker.
• Louis Blanc called for workers to demand
  universal suffrage and take control of the state
  peacefully.

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13.)

• Karl Marx (1818-1883) is considered the father of
  socialism. Born of the middle class, he was an
  atheist. He was heavily influenced by the French
  socialists. However, by the age of 25 he had
  begun to develop his own theories about socialism.

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• Basically, where earlier socialists had wanted
  the middle class to help the working class, he
  argued that the middle class (the bourgeoisie)
  and the working class (the proletariat) were
  hopelessly opposed to each other, a class
  struggle that had always existed in all
  societies. Modern industrialization had truly
  exacerbated this conflict.

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• Just as the bourgeoisie had overcome the feudal
  aristocracy, so the proletariat would overcome
  the bourgeoisie, with the help of a few middle
  class thinkers like himself and his partner,
  Friedrich Engels. Together they published The
  Communist Manifesto, which outlined this vision,
  and concluded that the proletariat have nothing
  to lose but their chains. They have a world to
  win. Working men of all countries, Unite!

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14.)

• Romanticism is a movement that emerged in the
  early 19th Century. It was characterized by a
  belief in emotional exuberance, unrestrained
  imagination, and spontaneity. Romantics were the
  bohemians of the day, rejecting materialism and
  seeking spiritual fulfillment through their arts.

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• Romantics were rebelling against two things
• The classical tenets of the Greco-Roman world,
  which celebrated symmetry, balance, and
  proportion.
• The Enlightenment, which sought to rationalize
  everything and reduce human emotion to a set of
  scientific principles.

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• Some notable Romantics
• -William Wordsworth- Ushered in the English
  Romantic movement wrote a huge body of poetry, I
  Wondered Lonely As A Cloud
• -Samuel Taylor Coleridge- Wrote poetry along with
  Wordsworth Kubla Khan, and The Rime of the
  Ancient Mariner
• -Sir Walter Scott- Scotsman, novelist who created
  Ivanhoe

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• -Victor Hugo- French, The Hunchback of Notre
  Dame, and Les Miserables
• -The Brothers Grimm- collected the ancient folk
  tales of Germany
• -Eugene Delacroix- French, artist famous for
  dramatic scenes that stirred the emotions.
• -Ludwig van Beethoven- German, his music was
  emotional and moving.

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16.)

• Greece had been under the domination of the
  Ottoman Turks since the fall of Constantinople in
  1453. United by their national language, history,
  and Orthodox religion, the Greeks were a perfect
  example of the new nationalism. In 1821 they
  revolted, led by Alexander Ypsilanti. At first
  the Great Powers were horrified by yet another
  revolution against the established way of things.
  However, by 1827, European and American opinion
  had turned. Britain, France, and Russia forced
  the Ottomans to accept a treaty, and destroyed a
  Turkish fleet. The three powers declared Greek
  independence in 1830, inspiring nationalism
  everywhere. Greece had been a very special case,
  however.

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Ottoman Empire in 1820
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17.)

• The British aristocracy (the gentry or
  "squirearchy") had been firmly entrenched since
  1688. Their power had grown during the 18th
  century. It was they who had enclosed lands and
  made profits. Even though they ruled rather
  benevolently, Britain was not truly democratic at
  all. Thus, the Revolution had made them extremely
  nervous and protective of their interests. Known
  politically as Tories, they repressed any sign of
  liberalism wherever possible.

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The Squirearchy
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18.)

• The Corn Laws are the classic example of class
  interests. During the Napoleonic Wars, Britain
  had been unable to import grain, leading to
  shortages and high prices. The aristocracy had
  put much of their land to grain cultivation, and
  as a result reaped huge profits.

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• With Napoleon defeated, it seemed natural that
  foreign grain would once again be imported and
  the prices drop. However, the gentry (which
  controlled the House of Lords and some of the
  Commons) pushed through changes to the Corn Laws,
  which basically kept foreign grain out. They
  artificially manipulated the price of bread for
  their own selfish interests. The Corn Laws became
  a symbol of aristocratic repression.

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19.)

• The public was outraged, especially the urban
  workers ,who depended on bread. Together with
  radical intellectuals, the workers campaigned to
  reform the House of Commons. The Tory government
  responded by limiting freedoms. In Manchester, a
  peaceful workers rally was broken up by armed
  cavalry, and several innocents were killed. The
  public scornfully called this the "Peterloo"
  massacre. This event was the turning point in the
  struggle, as public opinion began to turn against
  the Tories somewhat.

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The Anti-Corn Law League
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Peterloo
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20.)

• It was the upper middle classes that really
  pushed for reform. Wealthy though they were,
  these entrepreneurs, capitalists, and merchants
  had no noble titles. Thus, they had no real say
  in the Tory government. In the 1820's they began
  to push hard for reform, along with the rest of
  the middle classes.

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21.)

• By 1832, the Whig party had pushed the king to
  eliminate rotten boroughs. A rotten borough is
  when a MP might represent a small village, while
  huge new industrial districts had equal or lesser
  representation. Often the MPs bought and sold
  these seats. As representation became more equal,
  the Tory grip on government loosened. The Reform
  Bill of 1832 was the first step toward a liberal
  government.

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22.)

• The Chartists, so called because they
  championed the Peoples Charter of 1838, wanted
  universal male suffrage. They petitioned
  Parliament three times for the voter but were
  denied three times.
• The Anti-Corn Law League was a middle class
  radical group. They wanted the Corn Laws
  repealed. When the Irish Potato famine struck and
  food prices rose in England, Parliament had no
  choice but to repeal the Corn Laws. Thereafter,
  free trade became the sacred dogma of Britain.

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23.)

• The potato had become the main staple of Irish
  diets since it was introduced in the 1600 and
  1700's. Requiring little land and money to plant,
  yet rich in nutrition, the Irish depended on it.
  The potatoes were blighted in 1845,46, 48, and
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  while over a million people fled to England,
  Canada, America, and Australia.

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• The real tragedy was that most of the misery was
  avoidable. Ireland had been ruled as a conquered
  province since the days of Cromwell and the
  Battle of the Boyne. The Irish peasants rented
  land from mainly British, Protestant landlords.
  These landlords were usually absentee landlords.
  When the crop failed and they couldn't make rent,
  they were tossed out and their homes destroyed.
  They took to the roads. The British government
  didn't want to give them food for fear of
  depressing grain prices. By the time they did
  move to help, hundreds of thousands were dead.

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24.)

• Louis XVIII ruled from 1814 to 1824. His
  successor, Charles X, was truly of a medieval
  mindset when it came to governance. It was almost
  as if he refused to acknowledge that the
  Revolution had even happened. Wanting to
  re-establish the Old Order, in 1830 he attempted
  to strip the middle class of the right to vote.
  Paris boiled over in rage and revolt, and after
  "three glorious days", Charles fled. His cousin,
  Louis Philippe, accepted the throne.
• His acceptance of the throne hadn't really
  changed much. He made some symbolic concessions,
  but in truth, France remained in the hands of a
  narrow elite class.

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25.)

• In 1848 Europe saw a revival of the Revolutionary
  impulse. Only Britain and Russia were spared.
  France, Austria, and Prussia exploded.
• It began in France. Louis Philippe's 18 years of
  rule were characterized by inaction. He had made
  no attempt to broaden the right to vote. In Feb.
  of 1848 riots broke out in Paris Louis was
  forced to abdicate. The people would tolerate no
  more monarchy, however, and a provisional
  republic was proclaimed.

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• What happened next illustrates the conflicting
  forces of the industrial age. The moderate middle
  class revolutionaries wanted male suffrage. The
  radical socialists, however, wanted much more.
  Attempting to appease them, the bourgeoisie
  created "workshops", made work to give relief
  to the poor. As the socialists gained more power
  in Paris, the rest of the country began to fear
  this new revolution. When they tried to close the
  workshops, class warfare erupted in the streets.
  After such bloodshed, the French people again
  craved stability. At the end of 1848 they elected
  Louis Napoleon, nephew of Bonaparte. The 1848
  revolution in France had been a failure.

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Louis Napoleon (Napoleon III)
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26.)

• The French revolts excited liberals and
  intellectual across Europe. The Hungarians
  demanded autonomy and male suffrage. When the
  Habsburgs hesitated. the students of Vienna
  filled the streets in revolts, and the Emperor
  fled, promising reforms. Seemingly victorious,
  this new coalition would soon splinter. The other
  peoples of the Empire didn't care about Hungarian
  nationalism. Additionally, the peasants didn't
  have the same goals as the urban workers. As
  these groups turned on each other, the
  conservative forces rallied around the
  Archduchess Sophia.

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27.)

• Deeply ashamed of her brother- in- law Ferdinand,
  she insisted that he abdicate and that her young
  son Francis Joseph assume the throne. Soon, the
  collective power of the nobility, the army, and
  the Church, had crushed revolutionary forces
  throughout the Empire. As in France, this
  uprising had failed.

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28.)

• ln Prussia, the situation had a similar
  beginning. Under pressure from working class
  leaders, liberal intellectuals, and students, the
  Kaiser caved in and declared that Prussia would
  have a liberal constitution.
• The problem in Prussia was similar. The
  socialists and radical had a long list of
  demands, while many Prussians simply wanted a
  unified German state, with or without Austria.
  These leaders convened the "Frankfurt Assembly.
  They soon launched a war against Denmark over the
  provinces of Schleswig and Holstein.

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• While they obsessed over this conflict, Frederick
  William IV reasserted his power. Though he was
  "elected" by the Frankfurt Assembly, the truth
  was that he ruled with or without them. To prove
  this he granted a very limited constitution. When
  all was said and done, revolutionary ideals had
  failed in Prussia. Furthermore, German
  unification seemed as far away as ever before.