The First Sultans

1
The First Sultans

• Iltutmish, Balban, and Ala-ud-din Khilji

2
Mahmuds motivation and his impact

• Was his primary motivation political or religious
  (sharia-minded)?
• Primary impact was not that of conquest but of
  the possibility of gaining access to a vastly
  profitable landthe weakness of Indian borders.
  Also demonstrated the need for local allies and
  the difficulties of continued rule.
• The raided parts quickly recovered. Trade was
  established, temples were rebuilt. Rajput
  confederacies quickly re-established political
  control.
• The popular historiography is less helpful in
  giving us information about Mahmuds own time,
  much more useful in indicating his influence and
  growing myth in later times as exemplary Turkish
  warrior and ruler.

3
Sources for this period

• UtubiMahmuds court historian
• Al-Beruniwar captive and scholar
• Later histories such as those authored by
  Ferishta, Isami, Barani some 200-400 years later
• Rules governing Tarikh (Persian court histories)
  Indian Itihaasa/Purana traditions
• How do we sift through these texts?
• Be alert for biases
• Look for obvious exaggerations, compare with
  other sources
• Think carefully of the relationship between the
  author, patron, and the story being told

4
Ilbari Rule

• Long gap of almost 150 years between Mahmud and
  the Ilbaris
• Next campaign does not occur until the late 12th
  Century under Muhammad Ghori
• The renewed strength of the Rajputs and Indian
  tribes is clearly demonstrated in their strong
  opposition of Muhammad Ghoris armies

5
Comparing Campaign Routes
6
Muiz-ud-din Mohamad Ghori, 1173-1206

• Multan campaign1175-8
• Lahore1179-86, three attempts
• First Battle of Tarrain1190
• Finally, Victory at the Second Battle of Tarrain,
  1192Why?

7
After Ghuris death

• Empire divided between three rival factions led
  by Yilduz, Aibak, and Qabacha. Aibak only
  retains central portions around Delhi.
• The remaining Turkish amirs and maliks resent the
  elevation of one of their own
• Indigenous chiefs (Thakurs, Rais, Rajas) also
  rebel

8
Aibaks short Rule

• Consolidates area around Delhi
• Lays the basics of administration, using Iqtas
• Builds alliances with powerful nobles
• Dies prematurely in a polo accident in 1210
• Sultanate remains very unstable

9
Iltutmish (1210-1236)

• The Iron fist in the velvet glove
• Brought to power through the influence of a
  clique of Turkish nobles, spends the majority of
  his reign trying to break their grip over power
• Realizes the need to cultivate a power base
  spread through different social groups
• Also tries to create a court culture to subtly
  create obvious differences in court between the
  ruler and the nobilityRole of ruler as patron

10
Iltutmishs military strategies

• Keep buffer states in the northwest as a barrier
  against Mongols until 1227 when Chingiz Khan dies
• Avoids supporting Khwarzim Shahs or Yilduz
• 1228 Multan and Sind annexed
• Also adds Eastern and Southern fronts
• 1225-1229 direct control over Bengal
• 1226-1228 Rajasthan
• 1231-1235 Central India, inc. Gwalior, Malwa

11
Iltutmishs Conquests, c. 1236
12
Iltutmishs Strategies

• Advantages to a diplomatic approach to
  different groupschehelgan, Sufis, local
  magnates, Mongols
• Iqta reformsthose under khalisa increased
• How successful was Iltutmish in his efforts to
  reform?
• Moderate, has the first long stable rule
• Power of Chehelgan not completely diluted
• Problems with the Iqta persist
• More groups in Sultanate society, however, begin
  to have power and act as a counterbalance to the
  Chehelgan
• Razias rule (1236-1240)how to interpret it?

13
Some Problems of Ilbari rule

• Problems with the Iqta system, attempts to
  integrate local magnates in administrationtoo
  little manpower available among Turks
• Factionalism between the Turkish Chehelgan,
  useful and not
• The position of the Sultan, in relation to Amirs,
  Sufi Sheikhs (Who really has authority in the
  eyes of the people?)
• The place of Islam within courtly
  circleshistorical claims of the court chronicles
  v. probable reality
• In the early period power is limited to cities
  such as Delhi and Lahore
• Power is shared among the Turkish Chehelgan
  families, but alternative types of social and
  religious influence is also exercised by
  religious figures (Hindu and Muslim), local chiefs

14
Balban

• Razias short reign and the confusion that
  follows
• Indirect rule 1246-66, Nasir ud-din Sultan
• has sultan marry his daughter, asks for title of
  Ulugh Khan
• 1253 failed attempt by N. Khan reveals division
  amongst chehelgan favored Balban
• Military strength squandered as chehelgan and
  Mongal threats grow
• 1266 Nasir ud-din Khan poisoned, Balban becomes
  Sultan
• Direct Rule 1266-87
• Longest reign of early sultanate rulers (41 years)

15
Direct Rule 1266-87

• Focus on Delhi and Doab
• Settlement of garrison towns, different ethnic
  groups, particularly Afghans recruited
• Increased incentives to cultivators, state help
  with deforestation, clearing of roads,
  encouraging trade
• Centralized regiments created to counter reliance
  on chehelgani troops
• Iqtas made non-hereditary, reduced in size

16
Balban cont.

• Intelligence networks expanded, scrutiny over
  chehelgan alliances and iqta management increases
• Authors his own book on courtly rule, creates and
  islamic veneer, but favors rules from pre-Islamic
  Persia
• Courtly protocol prioritizes rules from ancient
  Persia
• Formalized courtly etiquette treats ruler as most
  important, Gods shadow on earth
• Kissing the ground in front of the ruler, bowing,
  prohibitions of turning back to ruler
• Access to kings and princes limited
• Royal sons and grandsons given Persianized names
• Lots of pomp and ceremony, including increased
  consumption of luxury goods at court

17
Impact of Balban

• Economy stabilizes, market towns increase in
  numberdue to increased migration from
  Afghanistan and Persia
• Mongols contained
• Power of chehelgan reduced, through iqta reform
  and garrison towns, but they become more hostile
  to centralized rule
• Balbans severe punishments and killings greatly
  reduce the number of qualified officers and
  generals, independent action discouraged and
  sycophancy encouraged
• No competent successor remains when Mohammad, the
  older son is dies in 1285.

18
Problems of succession

• Turkish custom did not favor primogeniture
• The nobility had some say in the selection of the
  next ruler if sultan did not appoint an heir
• Balbans attempt to create a succession failed
• Younger son Bughra Khan resented and feared his
  father since 1275 events in Bengal
• Muhammads son Kaykhusrau was designated heir
  after Mohammads death in 1285 but opposed by
  amirs
• Bughar Khans son Kayqabad and his son Kayumars
  both had short reigns while the chehelgan
  attempted to use them as puppet rulers, Bughra
  stayed far away from Delhi

19
Ala-ud-din Khaljis Campaigns

• Suppresses several attempts by mongols and
  secures NW borders b/w 1296-1306
• 1299Gujrat (important for sea trade) and
  Ranthambor annexed
• 1302-3Orrisa and Bengal campaign unsuccessful
• 1303 Chittor and Central India
• Malik Kafurs expeditions
• Campaign against the Yadavs (Devgiri) 1306-07
• Against the Kakatiyas of Warrangal 1309-1310
• Against the Hoysalas of Dvarsamudra 1310
• Against the Pandyas (southernmost) 1311

20
Iqta Reforms

• Iqtas accessed and registered to reduce fraud and
  corruption
• Not hereditary, but assigned for a limited use,
  revert to treasure at end of appointment period
• Sizes kept small, holdings scattered to reduce
  influence of iqta holders
• Share of taxes from Iqtas reduced for chehelgan,
  other nobility and headmen, reducing their
  income, increasing the share of the treasury