Bilingual Language Disorders

1
Bilingual Language Disorders
2
Introduction

• When CLD students struggle in school, teachers
  often refer them for special education testing,
  including speech-language assessment.
• Generally, the teachers are wondering if these
  students have a specific language impairment
  (SLI) or just language differences.
• One of the more difficult tasks for an SLP in
  providing clinical services to children and
  adults learning English as an L2 is to determine
  whether the child or adult has a communication
  disorder or whether the behavior observed is the
  result of the impact of development of the L2 on
  the L1.
• Factors in second language acquisition such as
  language loss, language mixing and code switching
  make this an especially challenging process.

3
Introduction

• In order to diagnose a CLD student with an actual
  SLI, it must be proven that the student has an
  underlying difficulty learning any languageL1
  and English.
• CLD students should not be labeled as SLI if
  problems are observed only in English and not
  in L1.
• SLI is a disability that affect the childs
  learning of any language.
• Exposure to two languages in not a cause of a
  disability.
• If a student has a genuine SLI, difficulties will
  be observed in both L1 and in English.

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The Diagnostic Challenge

• When linguistically and culturally diverse
  students appear to be struggling in school, the
  first question to ask is "Does this student have
  a language difference or a language disorder?
• What constitutes a language difference?
• What constitutes a language disorder?
• When a child is learning a new language and has
  limited experience using the new language,
  differences in sound production, syntax,
  vocabulary, and pragmatic use are to be expected.

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The Diagnostic Challenge

• Unfortunately, these children are often
  misidentified as "language disordered"
  (Roseberry-McKibbin, 1995).
• The "language disorder" diagnosis is appropriate
  only for students with disabilities affecting
  their underlying ability to learn any language.
• Exposure and experience are critical for success
  in acquiring a new language.
• Children must hear the language and be provided
  with experience in using it through oral
  communication or through literacy experiences.

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The Diagnostic Challenge

• Teachers typically assume that students entering
  school have had opportunities to listen to
  stories, to explore books, to cut with scissors,
  to color pictures with crayons, and to use
  language for a variety of purposes.
• Moreover, it is assumed that children have been
  taken to stores, parks, zoos, libraries, and
  other places in the community.
• However, not all students come from backgrounds
  where they have had all of these experiences.
• Some children who immigrate to the US may have
  traveled to a variety of countries and may speak
  and write in several languages.

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The Diagnostic Challenge

• Other children, however, may have had limited
  experiences with books and limited opportunities
  for language enrichment.
• Some children may even come from backgrounds in
  which there is no written form of the language.
• In the Netherlands, for example, some students
  from isolated areas speak Berber languages that
  do not have a tradition of literacy.
• Some Native American groups and speakers of
  Haitian Creole have predominantly oral traditions
  with no formal written language.

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The Diagnostic Challenge

• If a students background experiences are
  different from those of most other children in
  the school system, he or she may exhibit language
  behaviors that stand out as being "different."
• The student may not be learning because of lack
  of exposure to new experiences or to experiences
  that are not commensurate with what the school
  expects.
• Unfortunately, when "problems" observed in school
  result from differences in the children's
  experiences and the school's expectations,
  educational professionals may assume that there
  is something inherently wrong with the student.

9
The Diagnostic Challenge

• Disabilities are often "created" for students
  who, in reality, need greater exposure and
  experience to meet the demands of the classroom
  curriculum.
• If the expectations of school professionals do
  not consider what the student has experienced in
  the past, misdiagnosis may occur and this
  misdiagnosis may result in an inappropriate
  special education placement.
• A childs language experiences are critical in
  evaluating language proficiency.

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The Diagnostic Pie

• When assessing a CLD student for a possible SLI,
  it is very important to rule out the impact of
  environment as well as a mismatch between the
  childs background and the schools expectations.
  
• Professionals must also look at the effects of
  second language acquisition and bilingualism on
  the student's performance.
• The diagnostic pie is a simple conceptual
  framework that can help distinguish language
  differences from SLI in CLD students who are
  learning English as an L2 or L3.

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The Diagnostic Pie
12
Quadrant 1 Normal Language Learning Ability

• Children that fall into quadrant 1 come from
  backgrounds that may be rich in stimulation and
  general experiences.
• These students generally have the conceptual
  foundation necessary for academic success.

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Quadrant 1

• The needs of these students can usually be served
  best in bilingual classrooms or in English as a
  Second Language (ESL) programs.
• If given time, attention, and support, these
  students will generally succeed in school.

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Quadrant 2 Normal Language-Learning Ability

• Student falling into quadrant 2 also have normal
  language learning abilities.
• However, they may come from backgrounds in which
  economic disadvantages may have restricted
  environmental stimulation and linguistic
  exposure.

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Quadrant 2

• Life circumstances have affected their
  experiential opportunities to learn prior to
  entering school.
• These students often do poorly on standardized
  tests that are based on mainstream, middle-class
  expectations.
• They are likely to make adequate progress in
  school if they receive enough input, exposure,
  and stimulation.

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Quadrant 2

• Bilingual education and/or ESL programs can be
  effective because they enhance skills in both the
  primary language and English.
• However, special education programs are
  inappropriate for students whose underlying
  language-learning ability is intact
  (Roseberry-McKibbin, 1995).

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Quadrant 3 Language Learning Disability

• Students in Quadrant 3 come from backgrounds in
  which they have had adequate exposure and
  language stimulation.
• Their life experiences are consistent with those
  expected in mainstream schools.

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Quadrant 3

• Despite the fact that the school has provided
  supplemental activities (e.g., tutoring, ESL
  programming) within the regular education
  curriculum, the student continues to manifest
  learning difficulties when compared to peers from
  similar cultural and linguistic backgrounds.

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Quadrant 3

• These students need to receive special education
  services so that their unique disabilities can be
  appropriately addressed by personnel with
  specialized training.
• Opportunities for instruction in the primary
  language should be provided, if possible, so that
  the child can make use of his or her previously
  acquired knowledge to learn new information.

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Quadrant 4 Language-Learning Disability

• Students in Quadrant 4 come from backgrounds in
  which there are known limitations in experiences
  that may be contributing to problems identified
  in the school setting.
• These children, however, also have problems
  learning new language skills.

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Quadrant 4

• When assessing these students, it is difficult to
  determine whether the students' low test scores
  are due to background/environment, an underlying
  disability, or both.
• Most professionals wrestle with the issue of
  whether to place these students into Quadrant 2
  or Quadrant 4.

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Quadrant 4

• Determining why a child is not performing well in
  the classroom is difficult.
• Children should not be considered to have a
  "disability" if their needs can be met by
  providing a culturally and linguistically
  appropriate program of instruction in the regular
  classroom.

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Quadrant 4

• Students in Quadrant 4 ideally need bilingual
  special education with additional enrichment
  activities to compensate for limited learning
  opportunities in their environments.
• Students in Quadrant 4 should be provided with
  opportunities for support in the primary language
  to the maximum extent possible.

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Definition of Language Learning Disability

• Students who speak a language other than English
  should never be diagnosed as language-learning
  disabled based solely on results obtained from
  tests administered in English.
• Information about language functioning in both
  the primary language and English should be
  obtained before educational decisions are made.
• Problems in both the primary language and English
  that suggest a language-learning disability
  include

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Definition of Language Learning Disability

• Difficulty in learning language at a normal rate,
  even with special assistance in both languages
• Deficits in vocabulary
• Short mean length of utterance
• Communication difficulties at home
• Communication difficulties when interacting with
  peers from a similar background
• Auditory processing problems (e.g., poor memory,
  poor comprehension)
• Lack of organization, structure, and sequence in
  spoken and written language difficulty conveying
  thoughts

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Definition of Language Learning Disability

• Slow academic achievement despite adequate
  academic English proficiency
• Family history of special education/learning
  difficulties
• Slower development than siblings (as per parent
  report)
• Reliance on gestures rather than speech to
  communicate
• Inordinate slowness in responding to questions
• General disorganization and confusion
• Difficulty paying attention
• Need for frequent repetition and prompts during
  instruction
• Need for a program of instruction that is more
  structured than that used with most other
  students

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Definition of Language Learning Disability

• Difficulties affecting grammar and sentence
  structure
• Difficulties in the use of precise vocabulary and
  overuse of words such as stuff, things, you know,
  etc.
• Inappropriate social use of language (e.g.,
  interrupts frequently, digresses from topic, is
  insensitive to the needs or communication goals
  of conversational partners, cannot stay on the
  topic of discussion, cannot take turns in
  conversation)
• Poor sequencing skills. Communication is
  disorganized, incoherent, and leaves listener
  confused
• Overall communication skills that are
  substantially poorer than those of peers

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Legal Considerations

• Recent federal legislation (IDEA, 1997) has
  emphasized the prevention of inappropriate
  identification and mislabeling of ethnically and
  linguistically diverse students.
• Professionals responsible for conducting special
  education evaluations need to be aware of legal
  mandates governing the assessment of LCD
  children.
• The key mandates are summarized in the next few
  slides.
• 1973 Diana vs. State Board of Education. Testing
  must be carried out in the student's primary
  language. Assessment teams must document the
  appropriateness of special education placement by
  collecting extensive supportive data.

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Legal Considerations

• 1974 Lau vs. Nichols. Schools need to provide
  primary language programs to ensure equal
  education opportunities for CLD students.
• 7974 PL 93-380. Educational Amendments of 1974.
  Testing must be conducted in a nondiscriminatory
  manner.
• 1975 PL 94-142. The Education of All Handicapped
  Children Act (updated in 1990 to the Individuals
  with Disabilities Education Act, re-updated in
  1997). This law contains provisions designed to
  ensure that nondiscriminatory evaluations are
  conducted

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Legal Considerations

• 1. Personnel must make reasonable accommodations
  for students with disabilities and may not
  exclude any school-aged children solely because
  of the disability.
• 2. All children, regardless of handicap, are
  entitled to an appropriate and free education.
• 3. Informed consent must be obtained in the
  primary language.
• 4. Testing and evaluation materials and
  procedures must be selected and administered in a
  nondiscriminatory manner.

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Legal Considerations

• 5. Testing and evaluation materials must be
  provided and administered in the language or
  other mode of communication in which the child is
  most proficient.
• 6. Accommodations may include alternative forms
  of assessment and evaluation.
• 7. Tests must be administered to a child with a
  motor, speech, hearing, visual or other
  communication disability, or to a bilingual
  child, so as to reflect accurately the childs
  ability in the area tested, rather than the
  childs impaired communication skill or limited
  English language skill.

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Legal Considerations

• 8. Personnel must prepare an appropriate
  individualized education plan that meets the
  needs of the individual child.
• 9. Schools must educate children with
  disabilities in the least restrictive environment
  (LRE).
• 10. According to procedural due process, parents
  must be provided with the opportunity to object
  or consent to their childs identification,
  classification, placement, or individualized
  education plan.

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Legal Considerations

• 1986 PL 99-457 Education of All Handicapped
  Childrens Act Amendment of 1986
• 1. Programming for handicapped children down to
  age 3 is mandatory.
• 2. Incentives should be provided for programming
  beginning at birth.
• 3. An individualized family service plan (IFSP)
  is required that describes the services to be
  provided for children and their families.
• 4. All services must be provided by qualified
  personnel.