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Title: Anatomy and Physiology Chapter


1
Anatomy and Physiology Chapter 4
23 pairs of chromosomes in the human nucleus
Genes
Chromosome
Bases
DNA Strand
2
4.1 Introduction
  • Cells require energy and information to build
    bodies.
  • Cells carry out many reactions of metabolism.
  • These reactions break down nutrients to release
    energy.
  • Cells carry genetic info.
  • Enzyme is a special type of protein that controls
    each reaction of metabolism.

3
4.2 Metabolic Reactions
  • Metabolic reactions are of two types in
    anabolism reactions, larger molecules are
    constructed from smaller one.
  • The process that provides the biochemicals
    required for cell growth and repair is anabolism.
  • In catabolism reactions, larger molecules are
    broken down.
  • The reactions of metabolism are often reversible.
  • Which process requires energy? Anabolism Which
    releases energy? Catabolism
  • The process of joining two molecules by removing
    water is called dehydration synthesis. A
    by-product of dehydration synthesis is water.
  • The process of splitting two molecule by adding
    water is called hydrolysis. Hydrolysis occurs
    during digestion.

4
4.3 Control of Metabolic Reactions
  • Enzymes control the rates of all the metabolic
    reactions of the cell.
  • Enzymes are complex molecule (PROTEIN) that
    function to lower the activation energy of a
    reaction so it may begin and proceed more
    quickly. Because they do this, enzymes are
    called catalysis.
  • The substances the enzymes act on are called
    substrate. Each enzyme is specific. Enzymes
    recognize the specific shape of the substrate
    with which they react.

5
4.3 Control of Metabolic Reactions continued
  • Enzymes are needed to promote metabolic reactions
    in the body because the temperature in cells is
    not high enough to promote the increase in
    chemical reaction rates.
  • Very small quantities of enzymes are needed
    because they are not consumed in the metabolic
    reaction they facilitate.
  • Enzymes can be denatured (destroyed) by heat and
    radiation, chemicals and extremes of pH, and
    electricity.

6
4.4 Energy for Metabolic Reactions
  • The form of energy most often used by the body's
    metabolic processes is chemical.
  • ATP is Adenosine Triphosphate . It stores the
    energy for every reaction in the body.
  • Energy can be mechanical, chemical, and thermal.
  • The function of ATP is to store energy in its
    terminal phosphate bond.

7
Cellular Respiration
  • Is the process that releases the energy in the
    chemical bonds of the energy nutrients and stores
    it in molecules of ATP.
  • It has 3 basic stages, each of which have several
    steps and are controlled by many enzymes.
  • The first stage does not require oxygen and so is
    said to be anaerobic.
  • The other two stages require oxygen and therefore
    are aerobic.

8
1st Stage of Respiration
  • The first stage of cellular respiration is
    anaerobic and occurs in the cytosol.
  • The anaerobic respiration is called glycolysis.
    Where does it take place? cytosol
  • What chemical does it start with? glucose
    What chemical does it end
    with? Pyruvic acid
  • Are any ATPs formed? 2

9
2nd 3rd Stages of Respiration
  • The second phase of cellular respiration is
    aerobic and occurs in the mitochondria.
  • aerobic respiration has two stages.
  • Where do they occur? mitochondria
  • What are the three end products of this process?
    Oxygen, water, and ENERGY
  • Stage 2 is called citric acid cycle.
  • Stage 3 is called electron transport chain.

10
Figure 4.5 pg 77
11
Cellular Respiration
12
Respiration
  • C6H12O6 6O2 ? 6CO2 6H2O ENERGY

13
4.5 Metabolic Pathways
  • Metabolic pathways are a sequence of
    enzyme-controlled reactions.
  • lipids protein pathways these two nutrients
    can be used to make ATP. Where they plug into
    the process is going to depend on how many
    Carbons are in the piece the cell is working on.
    How many ATPs formed will also depend on this.

14
Genetic Info
  • Genetic information must tell cells how to
    position amino acids correctly in polypeptide
    chains.
  • The function of DNA is to direct the activities
    of the cell and to direct the synthesis of
    protein by the cell.
  • DNA molecules are replicated during what phase of
    the cell cycle? Interphase

15
4.6 Nucleic Acids (DNA RNA)
  • Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) contains the genetic
    code needed for the synthesis of each protein
    (including enzymes) required by the cell.
  • The "backbone" of DNA is composed of alternating
    nucleotides joined so that phosphate and sugar
    portions alternate. The sugar is named
    deoxyribose.
  • Name the four bases. Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine,
    Guanine
  • What are the two base complementary pairs of DNA?
    A-T C-G
  • DNA is double strands and twists to form a double
    helix.
  • The sequence of nucleotides in a DNA molecule
    gives the sequence of amino acids for a given
    protein.

16
DNA
17
4.7 RNA
  • What is the sugar in RNA called? ribose
  • Name the four bases Adenine, Cytosine, Guanine,
    Uracil.
  • RNA is single-stranded.
  • There are 3 types of RNA.
  • Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)- make ribosomes.
  • Messenger RNA (mRNA) copy and transfer the
    genetic information to the cytoplasm where
    proteins are manufactured.
  • Transfer RNA (tRNA) position amino acids along a
    stand of mRNA. tRNA join and form a protein
    molecule.

18
RNA
19
4.7 Protein Synthesis
  • Transcription is the transferring of info from
    the DNA in the nucleus to the mRNA.
  • Translation is the converting from the language
    of nucleic acids to the language of amino acids
    this occurs in the cytoplasm.
  • Transcription DNA ? RNA
  • Translation RNA ? protein

20
4.7 Protein Synthesis
  • mRNA molecules copy part of the DNA code in the
    nucleus.
  • They then travel to the ribosome where protein
    synthesis will occur.
  • They lie across the ribosome and wait for the
    tRNA to bring in the appropriate amino acids.
  • The correct amino acids will be lined up because
    the tRNA bases are arranged in anticodon that are
    complementary to the codons of the bases of the
    mRNA.
  • The amino acids bond with peptide bonds to each
    other to form a protein.

21
RNA Transcription
22
4.8 DNA Replication
  • Each new cell must be provided with an exact
    replica of the parent cell's DNA. When does DNA
    replication occur? Mitosis
  • The DNA molecule splits. Nucleotides form
    complementary pairs with the original strands.
  • Each new DNA molecule consists of one parental
    strand and one newly synthesized strand of DNA.
  • What is a mutation? Changes in DNA can be
    harmful, helpful, or have no effect.
  • The occurrence of mutations may be spontaneous or
    a result of exposure to ionizing radiation and
    toxic chemicals
  • DNA of the parent cell must be replicated
    accurately so that the new cell can maintain life
    functions, build cell parts and metabolize
    nutrients.

23
DNA Replication
24
Work Cited
  • DNA Replication image. http//www.genelex.com/pate
    rnitytesting/paternityslide1.html
  • DNA image. http//www.tokyo-med.ac.jp/genet/picts/
    dnaL.jpg
  • DNA, gene, chromosome image. http//www.alzheimers
    .org/unraveling/09.htm
  • RNA image. http//library.thinkquest.org/C0123260/
    basic20knowledge/images/basic20knowledge/RNA/str
    ucture20of20RNA.jpg
  • RNA transcription image. http//www.accessexcellen
    ce.org/AE/AEPC/NIH/gene03.html
  • Cellular respiration image. http//faculty.clinton
    cc.suny.edu/faculty/Michael.Gregory/files/Bio2010
    1/Bio2010120Lectures/Cellular20Respiration/cell
    ul13.gif
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