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Title: Lecture


1
Lecture 8 Introduction to Animal Structure and
Function
Images the two most beautiful cats in the
world, currently, as kittens and grownups
2
Key Concepts
  • What separates animals from other organisms?
  • Introduction to structure and function
    relationships the implications of being
    multicellular
  • Hierarchical organization in animals
  • Tissues
  • Organ systems
  • Bioenergetics and metabolic rates

3
What do all organisms have to do to make a
living???
  • ???

4
What do organisms have to do to make a living???
  • Acquire resources (food, water)
  • Eliminate waste products
  • Exchange metabolic gasses
  • Control internal conditions (homeostasis)
  • Control function
  • Control development
  • Reproduce (optional for individuals, essential
    for evolutionary success)

5
What makes an animal an animal?
  • ???

6
What makes an animal an animal?
  • All are eukaryotic, multi-cellular, aerobic, and
    heterotrophic
  • Most are mobile exceptions???
  • Most are highly complex with many specialized
    organs exceptions???
  • Cells divide by cleavage
  • Excess carbohydrate stored as glycogen or
    converted to fats
  • Most engage in sexual reproduction, some also
    have asexual reproduction processes

7
Structure and Function of Animal Systems
  • Focus on human biology, but will use comparative
    approach
  • Comparisons between animals of differing levels
    of complexity
  • We will correlate structure with function, at all
    levels of organization
  • Important theme in biology
  • Start with intro to basic principles
  • Then discussions of various organ systems

8
Critical Thinking
  • Life has been on this planet for 3½ billion
    years!
  • Until about 700 million years ago, all organisms
    were______________?

Table - the geological time scale
9
Its always fun to study the geological time
scale it reveals the history of life on earth
What happened here???
10
Critical Thinking
  • Life has been on this planet for 3½ billion
    years!
  • Until about 700 million years ago, all organisms
    were single celled!!!
  • The emergence of multi-cellularity allowed for
    organisms to adapt in complex ways to their
    environment
  • The migration to land promoted even more
    diversification about 450 million years ago

11
Multi-cellularity imposes limitations, too
  • In most multi-cellular organisms, not every cell
    is in contact with the external environment
  • Multi-cellular organisms develop complex
    morphologies that reflect their environment
  • Multi-cellular organisms develop complex
    mechanisms for resource/waste exchange with their
    environment
  • We saw these phenomena with plants animals do
    the same thing

12
Critical Thinking
  • Terrestrial plants use a tight epidermis and a
    waxy cuticle to retain water
  • What is the analogous structure in terrestrial
    animals???

13
Critical Thinking
  • Terrestrial plants use a tight epidermis and a
    waxy cuticle to retain water
  • What is the analogous structure in terrestrial
    animals???
  • The skin, and the oils that coat it
  • Structure and function are related, and are the
    product of each species long history of
    evolutionary adaptations

14
Critical Thinking
  • Most animals (even many aquatic animals) urinate.
    Why???
  • Do plants pee???

15
Critical Thinking
  • Most animals (even many aquatic animals) urinate.
    Why???
  • Most animals circulate metabolic waste products
    through a filtering system (such as our kidneys)
    and eliminate a liquid waste
  • Do plants pee???

16
Critical Thinking
  • Most animals (even many aquatic animals) urinate.
    Why???
  • Most animals circulate metabolic waste products
    through a filtering system (such as our kidneys)
    and eliminate a liquid waste
  • Do plants pee???
  • Plants dont produce as much metabolic waste
    (they use more nitrogen) and they mostly either
    die back and recycle, or store the waste in
    isolated vacuoles or wood

17
Constraints On Size And ShapeThe physical
environment affects animal evolution as it does
with all organisms
  • Simple physics
  • Flight, soil burrowing, swimming for speed
  • The physical environment
  • Dense water or soil, thin air
  • Often leads to convergent evolution of shape

Images - convergent evolution of spindle-shaped
swimmers
18
Constraints On Size And ShapeThe necessity of
exchange with the environment affects animal
evolution.
  • Resource/waste exchange with the environment
  • Diffusion at the surface was characteristic of
    the earliest animals
  • Limits size
  • Limits shape to thin, flat, open
  • Limits complexity
  • Mostly quite simple animals

Diagram - 2 tissue layers in Cnidarians
19
Most animals have much more complex exchange
systems
  • Exchange occurs at internal epithelia
  • Huge surface area is characteristic
  • Fun factoids from humans
  • Lungs have 100 m2 of surface area (about ½ as big
    as room)
  • Small intestine has surface area of a tennis
    court
  • 80 km of tubules in a single kidney
  • 100,000 km of blood vessels almost 3x
    circumference of the earth

20
Critical Thinking
  • How on earth do such large surface areas fit into
    our bodies???

21
Critical Thinking
  • How on earth do such large surface areas fit into
    our bodies???
  • Folding! All these epithelial surfaces are
    highly convoluted

Micrographs - lung and intestinal tissues
Small Intestine Tissue
22
Exchange with environment is not direct for most
animals
  • Body is covered with waterproof surface
  • Complex organ systems exchange materials
  • Organ systems are linked together, but not
    usually directly
  • Most organ systems are separated by interstitial
    fluid a water-based solution that surrounds all
    cells in the animal body
  • Transport occurs through the interstitial fluid

23
Indirect exchange between organism and
environment, and between organ systems
Diagram - organization of organ systems showing
indirect exchange through the interstitial fluid
same diagram on 29
24
Critical Thinking
  • Do nutrients leap from our breakfast cereal to
    our cells???
  • Why do animals need nutrients anyways???

25
Critical Thinking
  • Do nutrients leap from our breakfast cereal to
    our cells???
  • No first they are extracted through digestion,
    then they diffuse to the cells through a fluid
    medium
  • Why do animals need nutrients anyways???

26
Critical Thinking
  • Do nutrients leap from our breakfast cereal to
    our cells???
  • No first they are extracted through digestion,
    then they diffuse to the cells through a fluid
    medium
  • Why do animals need nutrients anyways???
  • Same as with plants to build the
    macro-molecules that make the animal work

27
Exchange with environment is not direct for
complex animals
  • Body is covered with waterproof surface
  • Complex organ systems exchange materials
  • Organ systems are linked together, but not
    usually directly
  • Organ systems are separated by interstitial fluid
    a water-based solution that surrounds all cells
    in the animal body
  • Transport occurs through the interstitial fluid

28
Indirect exchange between organ systems occurs
via the interstitial fluid one big exception
the Malphigian excretory tubules in insects are
directly connected to the digestive tract
29
All complex organisms have a hierarchical
organization
Diagram - cells - organism in a zebra
  • Cells
  • Tissues
  • Organs
  • Organ systems
  • Organism

Form Reflects Function!!!
30
Critical Thinking
  • Think of your heart, or this zebras how are
    structure and function related???

31
Critical Thinking
  • Think of your heart, or this zebras how are
    structure and function related???
  • Stretchy chambers to store blood
  • Muscular chambers to pump blood
  • Connected to vessels
  • Result circulation!!!

Yes, it really is often that simple and elegant
32
Form and function are correlated from cells ?
whole organism
  • We learned about cells in 111.
  • Cells
  • Tissues
  • Organs
  • Organ systems
  • Organism

33
Four major tissue types read more in text
Diagram tissue types
34
Epithelial Tissues
  • Sheets of cells that cover the body surfaces and
    line many of the internal organs
  • Base of epithelial tissue is attached to a
    basement membrane
  • The free (exposed) surface has cells that are
    either cuboidal, columnar or squamous (tile
    shaped)
  • Shape reflects function!
  • Some epithelia waterproof, some leak, some
    secrete, some slough off.

35
Epithelial tissues
Diagram sub-types of epithelial tissues
Which do you think are waterproof??? Which
leaky??? Which secrete??? Which slough off???
36
Connective Tissues
  • Cells held in a fibrous or fluid extra-cellular
    matrix
  • Matrix generally secreted by the cells
  • Many types and sub-types of connective tissue
  • Loose bind and shape
  • Adipose store fat
  • Fibrous strong connections
  • Cartilage cushions
  • Bone support system
  • Blood connects tissues to resources

37
Critical Thinking
  • What makes the bones of plants???

38
Critical Thinking
  • What makes the bones of plants???
  • Lignin gives rigid structure
  • Cellulose allows positive pressure to build to
    keep cells plump
  • Ground tissue gives additional structure to
    herbaceous plants

39
Critical Thinking
  • How about the blood???

40
Critical Thinking
  • What makes the blood of plants???
  • Resources are transported in the vascular tissues
  • Some are circulated in phloem

41
Muscle Tissue
  • Composed of cells that can contract
  • Skeletal enable movement, attached to bones by
    tendons
  • Voluntary under conscious nervous system
    control
  • Cardiac forms the heart
  • Involuntary
  • Smooth or visceral surround the digestive
    tract, other organs
  • Involuntary

42
Nervous Tissue
  • Transmits messages from one part of body to
    another
  • Nerve cells have a central cell body appendages
    that carry messages toward or away from the cell
    (dendrites/axons)
  • Appendages may be a meter long in humans!

43
Critical Thinking
  • Do all animal tissue types have directly
    analogous tissue types in plants???
  • Epithelial???
  • Connective???
  • Muscle???
  • Nervous???

44
Critical Thinking
  • Do all animal tissue types have directly
    analogous tissue types in plants???
  • Epithelial certainly, though not internal
  • Connective sort of (vascular, ground)
  • Muscle not really remember plants move by
    growing, other motions are related to water
    potential changes
  • Nervous no plants respond primarily based on
    chemical signals

45
Organs
  • Composed of two or more types of tissues
    organized into a functional unit
  • Tissues are often in layers, or they may be
    integrated throughout the organ
  • Stomach has layers of epithelial, connective,
    muscle, connective
  • Skin has layers of epithelial, connective, muscle
  • All tissues have blood vessels and nerve tissues
    integrated

46
Most animals have body cavities
  • These are fluid filled spaces that cushion and
    suspend organs
  • Sometimes they also give the body shape
  • In vertebrates, many organs are held in place in
    the body cavity by layers of connective tissues
    (mesenteries) and sheets of muscle (diaphragm)

Diagram body cavities
47
Organ Systems groups of related organs that
maintain various body functions
  • Complex organ systems are present in all higher
    animals
  • All organ systems are interdependent
  • Functions are coordinated (ex digestive
    vascular)
  • All systems work together to maintain homeostasis
    (constant internal conditions, more on this
    later)

48
Organ Systems most complex animals have 11
major organ systems image search for a table
like this one
Table all the organ systems found in a complex
animal
49
Diagrams closeups of the major organ systems
similar diagrams on next 4 slides
Digestive
Circulatory
50
Respiratory
Immune
51
Excretory
Endocrine
52
Nervous
Reproductive
53
Skeletal and Integumentary
Muscular
54
Organ systems are integrated in both structure
and function to produce the whole organism
Diagram summary of organ systems
55
Bioenergetic Principles Regulate Organism Activity
  • Bioenergetics the flow of energy through the
    animal
  • Controlled by energy sources vs. energy uses
    (food intake vs. metabolism)
  • Metabolic rates vary based on size, activity
    levels, homeostasis strategy and thermoregulation
    strategy
  • Important selection pressures include the
    physical environment and interactions with other
    organisms

56
Energy management food supplies energy to fund
metabolism, maintain homeostasis, and support
activity
Diagram bioenergetics in an organism
57
Influences on Metabolic Rate
  • Body size
  • Inverse relationship between size and metabolic
    rate per unit mass
  • Evidence is clear explanation is unclear
  • Activity level
  • Homeostasis strategy
  • It costs more to regulate
  • Thermoregulation strategy

58
Influences on Metabolic Rate
  • Body size
  • Inverse relationship between size and metabolic
    rate per unit mass
  • Evidence is clear explanation is unclear
  • Activity level
  • Homeostasis strategy
  • It costs more to regulate
  • Thermoregulation strategy

59
Homeostasis
  • Maintenance of constant internal conditions
    (actually, within a range of tolerance)
  • Various control systems regulate temperature,
    salt concentrations, water content, pH, blood
    sugar, etc
  • Most control systems rely on negative feedback
    loops the results of a process inhibit that
    process
  • process is self limiting

60
Most organisms regulate at least some components
of their internal environment
Diagram homeostasis
61
Homeostasis
  • Maintenance of constant internal conditions
    (actually, within a range of tolerance)
  • Various control systems regulate temperature,
    salt concentrations, water content, pH, blood
    sugar, etc
  • Most control systems rely on negative feedback
    loops the results of a process inhibit that
    process
  • Process is self limiting

62
Feedback Loops thermostats and furnaces are a
non-living example
Diagram a mechanical representation of a
negative feedback loop
63
Many similar strategies for regulation of blood
chemistry, blood sugar, body temperature, etc etc
etc
Diagrams representations of biological negative
feedback loops
64
Homeostasis is dynamic.
  • All feedback loops are constantly monitored and
    levels are fluctuating within range
  • Not all animals maintain stable internal
    conditions
  • Regulators expend metabolic energy to maintain
    stability
  • Conformers dont internal values vary with
    external conditions
  • Some animals regulate some conditions, conform to
    others

65
Influences on Metabolic Rate
  • Body size
  • Inverse relationship between size and metabolic
    rate per unit mass
  • Evidence is clear explanation is unclear
  • Activity level
  • Homeostasis strategy
  • It costs more to regulate
  • Thermoregulation strategy

66
Thermoregulation
  • All biochemical processes are sensitive to
    temperature
  • Extreme temperatures can denature proteins or
    alter membrane function
  • Animals regulate their internal temperature to
    maintain metabolic function
  • Two main strategies have emerged
  • Ecothermy
  • Endothermy

67
Thermoregulation
  • Ectothermic animals gain heat from the
    surrounding environment
  • Most invertebrates, fishes, amphibians and
    reptiles
  • Low metabolic rate when cold
  • Not always able to be active
  • Behavior is often used to regulate body
    temperature

68
Critical Thinking
  • Are ectothermic animals cold blooded???

69
Critical Thinking
  • Are ectothermic animals cold blooded???
  • NO!!! An ectotherms body temperature reflects
    its environment (with some exceptions)

Graph body temp vs. environmental temp in
ectotherms vs. endotherms
70
Critical Thinking
  • What are the costs and benefits of ectothermy???

71
Critical Thinking
  • What are the costs and benefits of ectothermy???
  • Cost limited activity and endurance
  • Animals must remain warm to maintain active
    cellular respiration
  • When their body is cold, they cannot produce
    enough ATP to be active
  • When cold, they cant forage or escape!
  • Benefits low energy cost

72
Thermoregulation
  • Endothermic animals use energy to maintain a
    constant body temperature
  • Primarily mammals and birds
  • High metabolic rate generates waste heat that
    keeps the body warm
  • Most endotherms also gain some heat from their
    surroundings or behaviors
  • Some endotherms vary body temperature by season
    or time of day (hibernation, estivation,
    diurnation)

73
Critical Thinking
  • What are the costs and benefits of endothermy???

74
Critical Thinking
  • What are the costs and benefits of endothermy???
  • Cost uses lots of energy
  • 10-30x more than same size ectotherm
  • Benefits allows for constant activity
  • Always able to forage
  • Always able to escape

75
Most endotherms are terrestrial
  • Moving on land requires more energy than moving
    in water (water supports)
  • Land T fluctuates more than water T (high heat
    capacity of H2O)
  • The development of endothermy was an important
    adaptation to the colonization of land
  • Many terrestrial animals are ectothermic, but few
    aquatic animals are endothermic

76
Always active Slow when its cold
Graph body temp vs. environmental temp in
ectotherms vs. endotherms
77
Both endos and ectos have many strategies to
regulate body temperature
  • Insulation
  • Adjusting the rate of heat exchange with the
    environment
  • Evaporative cooling
  • Behavior
  • Adjusting metabolic rate

78
Diagram adipose tissue as insulation
79
Many strategies to regulate body temperature
  • Insulation
  • Adjusting the rate of heat exchange with the
    environment
  • Evaporative cooling
  • Behavior
  • Adjusting metabolic rate

80
Adjusting the rate of heat exchange with the
environment
  • Constriction or dilation of surface blood vessels
  • Raising of fur or feathers
  • Fat accumulation
  • Countercurrent heat exchange

81
Critical Thinking
  • How would changing blood vessel diameter change
    the rate of heat exchange???

82
Critical Thinking
  • How would changing blood vessel diameter change
    the rate of heat exchange???
  • Alters the amount of warm blood that reaches the
    surface of the skin
  • Constricting holds heat
  • Dilating releases heat

83
Adjusting the rate of heat exchange with the
environment
  • Constriction or dilation of surface blood vessels
  • Raising of fur or feathers
  • Fat accumulation
  • Countercurrent heat exchange

84
Critical Thinking
  • How would raising the fur or feathers change the
    rate of heat exchange???

85
Critical Thinking
  • Why would raising the fur or feathers change the
    rate of heat exchange???
  • Adds more of an insulating boundary layer around
    the skin

Image fluffed bird
86
Adjusting the rate of heat exchange with the
environment
  • Constriction or dilation of surface blood vessels
  • Raising of fur or feathers
  • Fat accumulation
  • Countercurrent heat exchange

87
Countercurrent Exchange arterial blood is warmer
(comes from body core) warms adjacent venous
blood in extremities
Diagram countercurrent blood flow in birds leg
and dolphins fin
88
Adjusting the rate of heat exchange with the
environment
  • Some ectotherm fishes maintain higher
    temperatures in their deep swimming muscles with
    a heat exchanging pattern of blood flow
  • Increases aerobic respiration (thus ATP
    production) in those muscles
  • Partial endotherms

Diagram countercurrent flow in deep muscles of
fish
89
Many strategies to regulate body temperature
  • Insulation
  • Adjusting the rate of heat exchange with the
    environment
  • Evaporative cooling
  • Behavior
  • Adjusting metabolic rate

90
Sweating, panting, wetting.often linked to
behaviors.
Images animals panting and spraying
91
Many strategies to regulate body temperature
  • Insulation
  • Adjusting the rate of heat exchange with the
    environment
  • Evaporative cooling
  • Behavior
  • Adjusting metabolic rate

92
Behavior
  • Moving to shade/sun
  • Moving into/out of water
  • Restricting activity to night/day
  • Regulating body posture to manage solar exposure
  • Migrating
  • Social behavior to share heat (bees)

Image dragonfly positioned for minimum solar
exposure
93
Many strategies to regulate body temperature
  • Insulation
  • Adjusting the rate of heat exchange with the
    environment
  • Evaporative cooling
  • Behavior
  • Adjusting metabolic rate

94
Adjusting metabolic rate
  • Increases or decreases in muscular activity
    (shivering, active motion)
  • Acclimation many animals adjust to temperature
    changes throughout the seasons by changing enzyme
    type and quantity, altering lipids to keep
    membranes fluid
  • Torpor some animals react to predictable
    temperature and food supply fluctuations by
    entering a state of reduced metabolism
    (hibernation, etc)
  • Daylength is the likely trigger

95
Graph change in a moths thorax temperature
with pre-flight shivering
96
Adjusting metabolic rate
  • Increases or decreases in muscular activity
    (shivering, active motion)
  • Acclimation many animals adjust to temperature
    changes throughout the seasons by changing enzyme
    type and quantity, altering lipids to keep
    membranes fluid
  • Torpor some animals react to predictable
    temperature and food supply fluctuations by
    entering a state of reduced metabolism
    (hibernation, etc)
  • Daylength is the likely trigger for seasonal
    torpor

97
REVIEW Both endos and ectos have many
strategies to regulate body temperature
  • Insulation
  • Adjusting the rate of heat exchange with the
    environment
  • Evaporative cooling
  • Behavior
  • Adjusting metabolic rate

98
REVIEW Key Concepts
  • What separates animals from other organisms?
  • Introduction to structure and function
    relationships the implications of being
    multicellular
  • Hierarchical organization in animals
  • Tissues
  • Organ systems
  • Bioenergetics and metabolic rates
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