Section C: Applied anatomy and physiology

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Section C Applied anatomy and physiology
C3. Bones
Edexcel GCSE in Physical Education
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The Human Skeleton
Cranium
Vertebral Column
Clavicle
Sternum
Scapula
Ribs
Humerus
Radius
Carpals
Ulna
Meta-carpals
Ilium
Phalanges
Femur
Patella
Tarsals
Tibia
Meta-tarsals
Fibula
Phalanges
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The Vertebral Column

• The vertebral column protects the spinal cord and
  is made up of a total of 33 irregular bones
  called vertebrae. Between each (except where the
  bones are fused) are intervertebral discs.
• Other than protection the vertebral column allows
  movement, gives the body shape and support and
  also provides an area for muscle attachment.

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Five Regions of the Vertebral Column
Cervical Vertebrae (7) Support back and head.
Allow the most movement bend and tilt head and
look over shoulder.
Thoracic Vertebrae (12) Ribs connect to these. Do
not move much, so heart and lungs do not get
squashed!
Lumbar Vertebrae (5) Big, support the rest. Allow
plenty of twisting and turning. Powerful back
muscles attach to the vertebrae here.
The Sacrum (5 fused) Form one bone which is fused
to the pelvic girdle. A solid base for trunk and
legs.
The Coccyx (4 fused) Our ancestors had tails
and this part got left behind!
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An easy way to remember the five regions?

• Cute Cervical
• Teddies Thoracic
• Love Lumbar
• Some Sacrum
• Cuddles Coccyx

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Functions of the human skeleton

• Shape
• Without the skeleton the human body would be a
  shapeless heap of skin, blood and tissues.
• Protection
• Delicate parts of the body need protection.a)
  The skull protects the brainb) The vertebral
  column protects the spinal cord.c) The rib cage
  protects the heart and the lungs.
• Movement
• Muscles act on the bone to cause movement.a)
  The skeleton is jointed which allows a wide range
  of movement.b) Different joints allow various
  kinds of movement.
• Support  The body needs a skeleton toa) Hold
  the vital organs in placeb) Provide support for
  the body.
• Blood Production Red and White blood cells are
  produced in the marrow cavities of bones. 
  Calcium and other minerals are stored in the
  body.

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Classifying Bones

• There are four basic types of bone. Their size
  and make up are linked to how we use them.
• Long
• These are the large bones in our legs and arms. 
  They are used in the main movements of the body.
• Short
• These are the small bones at the joints of our
  hands and feet, allowing fine movements

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• Flat
• These are the bones of the skull, shoulder
  girdle, ribs and pelvic girdle.  They protect
  the vital organs of the body.  Large muscles can
  be attached to the flat bones.
• Irregular
• These are the bones in the face and vertebral
  column.  They gave the body protection and
  shape.

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Bone Type Table
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Development of the Skeleton

• The skeleton is formed during the first three
  months of foetal existence.
• At first it is made from CARTILAGE tissue.
• When a child is born, the skeleton has not yet
  hardened. The hardening occurs gradually.
• To harden into mature, strong bones, the skeleton
  needs an important nutrient, CALCIUM.
• The skeleton continues to grow in length until
  about the age of 13 15 in girls and 16 18 in
  boys.
• This process of bone development (cartilage
  hardening to bone) and growth is known as
  OSSIFICATION.

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The process of ossification

• Ossification, the development of bone from
  cartilage, continues through childhood until
  adulthood and occurs in three ways
• 1)  Normal bone growth from embryo (before birth)
  to maturity2)  Replacement of bone worn through
  normal daily activity3)  Repair of bone damaged
  by accident or over-use.
• Even when a bone has stopped growing it is full
  of life. Bone cells called osteoblasts keep
  making new bone.  At the same time other bone
  cells called osteoclasts break it down.  Exercise
  puts pressure on your bones which makes the
  osteoblasts work harder. All bones get lighter as
  people get older because the osteoblasts don't
  work so hard.  Many older women suffer from
  osteoporosis, where bones get so weak they break
  easily.

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The structure and composition of bone
Cartilage Smooth and slippery, a bit like thick
white plastic. Firm and elastic it protects the
ends of the bone where it meets other bones.
Hyaline Cartilage
Joint Surface
Epiphysis
Compact bone Hard and strong substance beneath
the periosteum, forming the shaft of a long bone.
Cancellous Bone
Epiphyseal Plate
Cancellous bone (spongy bone) A spongy substance
found inside the compact bone. Hard, light and
very strong. In some spongy bone the holes are
filled with red marrow, which makes blood cells.
Compact Bone
Diaphysis
Periosteum
Medullary Cavity
Medullary cavity (marrow cavity) Filled with soft
yellow pulp called marrow.
Epiphyseal Plate
Epiphysis
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The structure and composition of bone contd.

• Periosteum Tough fibrous membrane which covers
  all except the ends of the bone.
• Epiphysis The end part of a long bone.
• Epiphyseal plate Growth plates.
• Diaphysis The shaft of a long bone.

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Bone growth and exercise

• Exercise helps the development of the skeleton in
  young people and is essential for proper bone
  growth.  Exercise will increase
• Bone width
• Bone density
• Bone strength
• It appears to have no affect on bone length. 
• Injuries to bone need careful treatment to avoid
  damage to growth areas
• Flexibility is particularly important for young
  people whose bones are still growing.  During
  periods of rapid growth there can be an increase
  in muscle-tendon tightness about the  joints and
  loss of flexibility due to the bones growing much
  faster than the muscles stretch. 
• It is recommended that children perform
  stretching exercises to maintain flexibility and
  prevent injuries.

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Bone growth and diet

• Diet is an important factor in forming healthy
  bones. The mineral calcium is obtained from the
  diet and deposited in bones and teeth. Vitamin D
  is required for this process.
• A healthy diet providing adequate calcium at all
  stages of life, coupled with an active lifestyle,
  will help to ensure strong bones. This is
  particularly important during childhood,
  adolescence, and early adulthood when bones are
  developing.

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Bone growth and diet contd.

• Dietary sources of calcium
• As well as milk and dairy products, such as
  yoghurt and cheese, which are the major calcium
  providers in the diet, calcium is also obtained
  from bread pulses, green vegetables, dried
  fruits, such as apricots, nuts, and seeds, and
  the soft bones found in canned fish.
• Dietary sources of vitamin D
• The best dietary sources of vitamin D are oily
  fish, (herring, mackerel, salmon) margarines and
  spreads, meat and meat products, and eggs. The
  vitamin can also be synthesised through the
  action of sunlight on the skin, and for most
  people this provides the major source.

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Bones and their affect on performance

• The skeleton cannot be trained to improve.
• In other words, you cannot through exercise or
  training make your tibia bone longer or shorter.
• It is the muscles connected to the bone that can
  be trained for improvement
• It is of great importance in deciding overall
  suitability for a sport and performance within
  some sports.
• In fact it is actually a science called
  Kinanthropometrics.

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Contd.

• There are three main areas of consideration for
  the role that the skeletal system plays in sports
  performance. They are as follows
• Overall size of the skeleton
• The skeleton's proportions
• The size of certain individual bones.

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Overall size of the skeleton

• Size basically refers to height. And height in
  sport can be important.
• A guy that stands at 5 8 would be disadvantaged
  when playing Basketball for instance, because he
  would be too short.
• This could be overcome with a high degree of
  corresponding abilities such as great lateral
  movement, quick reaction time, explosive speed,
  etc.
• It might be best to consider alternative sports
  where his lack of height would not be a limiting
  factor.

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The skeleton's proportions

• The proportion of the skeleton is a more
  important variable in most sports than it its
  overall size. Proportion refers to the size of
  the upper body relative to the lower body.
• Proportion is a big factor in determining Center
  of Gravity.
• A low Center of Gravity is critical to the
  performance of a number of sports, especially
  those requiring upright balance (i.e. skiing) or
  balance during random movement (i.e. full back
  defending). Conversely, a high Center of Gravity
  is important to Runners.
• The longer your upper body is in relation to your
  lower body, the lower your center of gravity is.

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The size of certain individual bones.

• Certain sports are advantageous to individuals
  with certain length body parts.
• Boxers, for example, need long arms.
• Swimmers definitely benefit from large hands and
  wide feet.
• The sport of running favours those with long
  thighs.
• In general, the size of the individual body parts
  are far better determinants of success in a given
  sport than is the overall height of the skeleton.