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Hobbes Locke

• 1642-1651--England's Puritan Revolution and Civil
  Wars
• 1648--Peace of Westphalia ends Thirty Years' War
• 1648--King Charles I of England is publicly
  beheaded in London --Outbreak of the Fronde
  (revolt of the nobility) in France 1649
• 1651Thomas Hobbes publishes Leviathan, the
  first general theory of politics in the English
  language (E E 356)
• 1660--English monarchy is restored
• 1661--Louis XIV begins his personal rule at age
  14
• 1663--Eight proprietors are granted Carolina in
  the New World by Charles II
• 1670--Secret treaty between Charles II and Louis
  XIV (Treaty of Dover)
• 1673--England's Test Act excludes Roman Catholics
  from holding office
• 1682--Louis XIV moves government and court to
  Versailles
• 1688--England's Glorious Revolution Birth of
  Constitutional Monarchy
• 1689-90John Locke publishes The Two Treatises of
  Government
• 1689--England's Bill of Rights
• 1707--Union between Scotland and England under
  the name of "Great Britain"

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Rousseau

• 1723--Louis XV attains majority
• 1750Jean Jacques Rousseaus essay A Discourse on
  the Moral Effects of the Arts and Sciences is
  awarded by the Academy of Dijon
• 1751-72Publication of The Enciclopédie in France
  (edited by Diderot, with contributions by
  dAlembert, Holbach, Helvetius, Turgot, Haller,
  Morellet, Quesney, Voltaire, and Montesquieu)
• 1752--September 14, Great Britain adopts the
  Gregorian calendar 1755Rousseaus Discourse on
  the Origin of Inequality. Rousseau also publishes
  his Discourse on Political Economy in Diderots
  Enciclopédie
• 1756-1763-- Seven Year's War
• 1762Rousseau publishes The Social Contract
• 1777--American Revolution
• 1778--Alliance between United States and France
• 1783--Peace of Versailles between France,
  England, Spain, and United States
• 1787--Signing of the Constitution of the United
  States
• 1789--Outbreak of hostilities in France with the
  fall of the Bastille July 14 -- Abolition of
  French feudal system, Declaration of Rights of
  Man, nationalization of church property begins
• 1792--French Revolutionary Wars begin --
  1792--French royal family imprisoned
• 1793--Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette executed
• 1793--Robespierre joins Committee on Public
  Safety -- Roman Catholic faith banned in France
• 1793--First Coalition against France of Britain,
  Austria, Prussia, Holland, Spain
• 1794--U.S. navy established
• 1795--France makes peace with Prussia, Tuscany,
  Spain
• 1795--White Terror and bread riots in Paris
• 1795--Napolean assumes commander-in-chief

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ReactionaryConservativeModerate
(Center)ReformistRevolutionary
Classical political categorization (RF)
Right Social Order Left
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The Enlightenment (18th century)

• Natural Sciences discover of LAWS that regulate
  the physical world.
• ?
• The Philosophes aspired to discover the LAWS that
  regulate human beings and society.

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18th century Faith in Reason and Science

• Development of a critique of Absolutism and the
  power of the Church in behalf of human freedom.
• Commitment to Social and Political Reform.
• Locke, Montesquieu, Voltaire, Rousseau, Smith,
  Condorcet, Kant.

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Enlightenment Promethean Dream
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Epistemes Truth is understood as...

• Antiquity
• Renaissance the Enlightenment
• Modernity (onwards)

• Revealed
• Discovered (in Nature)
• Constructed

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Rousseau The Social Contract

• Radical Democratic Contractualism, or Precursor
  of Totalitarianism?

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Jean-Jacques Rousseau

• 1712-1778
• Born in Geneva, rebelled against the Calvinist
  atmosphere and left the city in 1728.
• Travels (Italy), Mme. de Warens.
• 1742, Paris.
• 1745, Meets Therese Levasseur.

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Main Works

• 1750 Discourse on the Arts and the Sciences (1st
  prize Academy of Dijon).
• 1755 Discourse on inequality
• Discourse on Political Economy
• 1762 On the Social Contract.
• Emile

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Work lost (destroyed)
Political Institutions
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Rousseaus ideas influenced the 1789 Revolution...
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On the Social Contract
I want to inquire whether there can be some
legitimate and sure rule of administration in the
civil order, taking men as they are and laws as
they might be. (17)
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Man is born free, and everywhere he is in
chains.
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The social order is a sacred right which serves
as a foundation for all other rights
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The Social Order...
Does not have its origins in nature, but in a
convention.
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The First Societies (II)

• Family children remain bound to their father
  only so long as they need him.
• Equality and independence.
• Political societies ? Family
• (pleasure of commanding) (love)

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Every man born in slavery is born for slavery
nothing is more certain.

• Because...
• In their chains slaves lose everything, even the
  desire to escape. (19)
• If there are slaves by nature, it is because
  there have been slaves against nature. (19)

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The Right of the Strongest (III)

• The strongest is never strong enough to be
  master all the time, unless he transforms force
  into right and obedience into duty.
• Force is a physical power I fail to see what
  morality can result from its effects.? ? Arendt

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For what kind of right is it that perishes when
the force on which it is based ceases?
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Obey the powers that be. (? Saint Paul)...If
that means giving in to force, the precept is
sound, but superfluous.
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All power comes from God...

• ...but so does every disease. Does this mean
  that calling in a physician is prohibited?

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Conclusion

• one is obliged to obey only legitimate powers.

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On Slavery (IV)

• Conventions are the source of authority among
  men.
• Problems is a contract of slavery conceivable?

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According to ...

• Grotius an individual can alienate his liberty
  and turn himself into a slave.
• A people can also do this
• Also Hobbes.

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Contract of Slavery

• I give up my freedom in order to survive.
• The same does a multitude.
• The despot assures his subjects civil tranquility
  ( Hobbes)

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Rousseau...

• A tranquil life is also had in dungeons is that
  enough to make them desirable?
• To say that a man gives himself gratuiously is
  to say something absurd and inconceivable. Such
  an act is illegitimate and null...

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• Renouncing ones liberty is renouncing ones
  dignity as a man, the rights of humanity and even
  its duties. There is no possible compensation for
  anyone who renounces everything. Such a
  renounciation is incompatible with the nature of
  man.

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War as source of slavery

• The victor who has the right to kill the
  vanquished- pardons his life if he agrees to
  become his slave.
• ?
• HEGELS MASTER/SLAVE DIALECTICS.

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But...

• There is no right to kill the enemy derived from
  war...
• Men are not naturally enemies (? Hobbes)... It is
  the relationship between things and not that
  between men that brings about war.

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Fights, duels, encounters... (individuals)

• ...do not make a state.
• War is not therefore a relationship between one
  man and another, but a relationship between one
  state and another.
• Only States are enemies...
• And States may be killed without any single
  individual be killed.

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Rousseau claims his principles are based on
Reason.
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Therefore...

• Neither a person enslaved during wartime nor a
  conquered people bears any obligation whatever
  toward its master, except to obey him for as long
  as it is forced to do so.

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• Slavery and Right are contradictory terms.

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The Social Compact (V)

• Men cannot engender new forces.
• Thus, they have to unite the forces they have in
  a single major force...

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The Social Contract creates...

• A form of association that defends and protects
  with all common forces the person and goods of
  each associate, and by means of which each one,
  while uniting with all, nevertheless obeys only
  himself and remains as free as before.

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The Clauses...

• Are UNIVERSAL.
• Main clause the total alienation of each
  associate, together with all of his rights, to
  the entire community.

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Each person...

• gives himself whole and entire.
• (so) nobody wants to make the condition
  burdensome...
• ... Actually, each person gives herself to no one.

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• Each of us places his person and all his power
  in common under the supreme direction of the
  general will and as one we receive each member
  as an indivisible part of the whole.

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Contract.Twofold commitment

• Individuals commit themselves...
• As members of the sovereign to private
  individuals
• As a member of the state toward the sovereign.

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This act of association generates a moral and
collective body composed of as many members as
there are voices in the assembly, which receives
from this same act its unity, its common self,
its life and its will.
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This public person, formed thus by union of all
the others formerly took the name city, and at
present takes the name republic or body politic,
which is called state by its members when it is
passive, sovereign when it is active, power when
compared to others like itself.
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The associates collectivelly take the name
people individually they are called citizens,
insofar as participants in the sovereign
authority, and subjects, insofar as they are
subjected to the laws of the state.
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The sovereign cannot derogate the original act of
its institution, that is... It cannot annihilate
itself.
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Emergence of...

• A MORAL AND COLLECTIVE BODY
• (is body here a metaphor?)
• with a...
• General Will

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No Guarantees.

• the Sovereign, being formed wholly of the
  individuals who compose it, neither has nor can
  have any interest contrary to theirs and
  consequently the sovereign power need give no
  guarantee to its subjects, because it is
  impossible for the body to wish to hurt its
  members.

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The General Will

• Individuals may have a private will different
  from the General Will.
• In case of conflict (implicit rule) whoever
  refuses to obey the general will will be forced
  to do so by the entire body.
• That is, he will be forced to be free.

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The General Will...

• Emerges from Deliberations.
• General Will ? The Will of All
• (Common (Private
• Interest) Interests)

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The passage from nature to civil society...

• Changes a stupid and unimaginative animal into an
  intelligent being and a man ? Master of himself.
• Develops feelings of Justice, Moral Liberty, and
  the experience of Reason in individuals.
• Changes possesion into property.

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Equality

• Instead of destroying natural equality, the
  fundamental compact substitutes, for such
  physical inequality as nature may have set up
  between men, an equality that is moral and
  legitimate... so that... Men become every one
  equal by convention and legal right.

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Sovereignty is Inalienable

• Sovereignty, being nothing less than the
  exercise of the general will, can never be
  alienated, and ... The Sovereign, who is no less
  than a collective being, cannot be represented
  except by himself the power indeed may be
  transmitted, but not the will.

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No Representation...Foundation for DIRECT
democracy.
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Government

• What then is government? An intermediary body
  set up between the subjects and the Sovereign, to
  secure their mutual correspondence, charged with
  the execution of the laws and the maintenance of
  liberty, both civil and political.
• The members of this body are called magistrates
  or kings, that is to say governors, and the whole
  body bears the name prince.

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• Sovereignty is Indivisible

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Sovereignty is Absolute

• State Body
• As nature gives each man absolute power over all
  his members, the social compact gives the body
  politic absolute power over all its members also,
  and it is this power which, under the direction
  of the general will, bears, as I have said, the
  name of Sovereignty.

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The Right of Life and Death

• The social contract seeks the preservation of the
  life of the Whole, so...
• We must be ready to give up our own life for its
  sake...

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The Right of Life and Death

• the citizen is no longer the judge of the
  dangers to which the law desires him to expose
  himself and when the prince says to him It is
  expedient for the State that you should die, he
  ought to die, because it is only on that
  condition that he has been living in security up
  to the present, and because his life is... now
  a gift made conditionally by the State.
• (Ex Socrates)