Mitochondrial DNA

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Mitochondrial DNA

• Mitochondrial DNA- maternally inherited,
  non-recombining.
• Mitochondrial genome
• Circular
• 16,569 nucleotides in length
• 530 are variable

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Mitochondrial DNA Patterns of Migration
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Chemistry of Life

• Basic Chemistry
• Elements and Atoms
• Isotopes
• Molecules and Compounds
• Covalent Bonds
• Ionic Bonds
• Hydrogen Bonds
• Properties of Water
• Acids and Bases
• Macromolecules
• ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)
• How to listen to and enjoy Polka music

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Periodic Table of the Elements

• Elements- substances composed of only one type of
  atom.
• 92 naturally occurring.
• Carbon, Nitrogen, Hydrogen, and Oxygen account
  for 90 of the elements in the human body.

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Atoms

• Atom- the smallest unit of an element.
• Atoms contain a nucleus and shell or shells.
• Atoms consist of 3 subatomic particles.
• Protons charge
• Neutrons no charge
• Electrons - charge

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Atom Stability

• The inner shell can hold 2 electrons.
• The outer shell can hold 8 electrons.
• Atoms are more stable when their shells are full,
  2 for the inner and 8 electrons for each
  additional outer shell.

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Isotopes

• Isotope- atoms that have the same number of
  protons, but different numbers of neutrons.
• Isotopes differ in the number of neutrons.
• Radioisotope- an unstable isotope that
  spontaneously decays and emits radiation.

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Irradiated Foods

• Benefits of
• Kills microorganisms
• Delays spoilage
• Sterilizes food
• FDA has approved
• Wheat flour
• Poultry
• Potatoes

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Molecules and Compounds

• Molecule- a chemical structure composed of atoms
  held together by covalent bonds.
• CH4 Methane
• Compound- a molecule that contains two or more
  different elements.
• NaCl Sodium Chloride

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Covalent Bond

• Covalent Bond- 2 or more atoms share electrons in
  their outer shells.
• Single covalent bonds are formed when atoms share
  a single pair of electrons.
• Double covalent bonds are formed when atoms share
  two pairs of electrons.
• Triple covalent bonds are formed when atoms share
  three pairs of electrons.

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Ionic Bonds

• Ionic Bond- atoms give up or take on an electron
  to stabilize their outer shells.
• Ions- particles that carry a positive () or
  negative (-) charge.
• The attraction between oppositely charged sodium
  ions () and chloride ions (-) forms an ionic
  bond.

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Hydrogen Bond

• Hydrogen Bond- an attraction between a slighly
  positively charged hydrogen atom and a slightly
  negatively charged atom.

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Properties of Water

• Water is liquid at room temperature.
• Water is a solvent for polar molecules.
• Water molecules are cohesive.
• Water temperature rises and falls slowly.
• Water has a high heat of vaporization.
• Frozen water is less dense than liquid water.

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Acids and Bases

• Acidic solutions have high hydrogen ion (H)
  concentrations.
• Acid- anything that releases hydrogen ions (H)
  when placed in water.
• Basic solutions have high hydroxide ion (OH-)
  concentrations.
• Base- anything that releases hydroxide ions (OH-)
  when placed in water.

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The pH Scale
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Macromolecule

• Macromolecule- a molecule with a molecular weight
  in the range of 2,000 to many millions.

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Macromolecule 1- Lipids

• Lipids- molecules that are insoluble in water
  (nonpolar- hydrophobic). They are soluble in
  oil.
• Lipids contain more energy per gram than any
  other biological molecule.
• 3 Types of Lipids
• Fats and oils
• Phospholipids
• Steroids

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Fats and Oils

• Fat- a triglyceride that is solid at room
  temperature.
• Oils- a triglyceride that is liquid at room
  temperature.
• Fatty Acids- carbon hydrogen chain with an acidic
  -COOH group.
• Saturated Fatty Acids- single bonds between
  carbon atoms.
• Unsaturated Fatty Acids- double bonds between
  carbon atoms.

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Phospholipids

• Phospholipid- a molecule with a polar head
  (phosphate group) and two nonpolar tails (fatty
  acid).
• Phospholipids form the cell membrane.

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Steroids

• Steroids- lipids with four fused carbon rings.
• Examples- cholesterol, testosterone, and estrogen.

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Lipid Functions

• Long-term energy storage.
• Insulation against heat loss.
• Protective cushion around organs.
• Form the backbone of the cell membrane.
• Communication among cells and tissues.

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Macromolecule 2- Carbohydrates

• Carbohydrate- an organic compound consisting of a
  chain of carbon atoms to which hydrogen and
  oxygen are attached in a 21 ratio.
• Function- quick and short-term energy storage.
• Two types of carbohydrates
• Simple
• Complex

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Simple Carbohydrates

• Monosaccharide- 3 to 7 carbon sugar molecules.
• Example- glucose and fructose.
• Disaccharide- 2 sugar molecules linked together.
• Example- sucrose.

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Complex Carbohydrates

• Polysaccharide- a polymer composed of many
  monosaccharide units joined in a long chain.
• Examples- starch, cellulose, glycogen.

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Macromolecule 3- Proteins

• Proteins- macromolecules with amino acid
  subunits.
• Amino acids have a central carbon atom bonded to
  a hydrogen and three groups.
• Peptide bond- any bond joining two amino acids.
• Polypeptide- A single chain of amino acids.

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Nucleic Acids

• DNA- Deoxyribonucleic Acid. A double stranded
  polymer of nucleotides. The sugar is deoxyribose.
  DNA forms a helix.
• RNA- Ribonucleic Acid. A single stranded polymer
  of nucleotides. The sugar is Ribose. RNA does not
  form a helix.
• Nucleotides.
• Adenosine (A).
• Thymine (T).
• Guanine (G).
• Cytosine (C).
• Uracil replaces Thymine in RNA.

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DNA Structure
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ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)

• ATP- a high energy molecule consisting of 1
  adenine, a ribose sugar, and 3 phosphate groups.
• When ATP is broken down it releases energy.