Lecture 7 Psyco 350, A1 Fall, 2006

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Lecture 7 Psyco 350, A1Fall, 2006

• N. R. Brown

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Outline

• Factors that influence Storage
• Rehearsal
• maintenance vs elaborate
• massed vs spaced
• Organization
• Generation
• Levels of Processing
• Encoding Retrieval context effects
• Independent Contexts
• Interactive Contexts

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Bradshaw Anderson(1982) Results

• Encoding relevant facts improve recall.
• Encoding irrelevant facts hampered recall.
• Effect was magnified by delay.
• Interpretation
• relevant facts fosters generation of appropriate
  cues
• irrelevant facts cause interference

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Spacing Effects

• Issue
• Rehearsal improves memory.
• Does the temporal distribution of rehearsals
  matter?
• Research Strategy
• holding of presentations constant, manipulate
  the lag (delay) between presentations.

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Madigan (1969) Spacing Effect

• Method
• words studied twice at 6 different lags.
• Results
• recall ? w/ lag
• Other findings
• spacing affects recognition (Glenberg, 1979)
• obtained w/ textbook materials

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Accounting for the Spacing Effect

• Deficient Processing
• habituate to recently presented material (less
  interesting)
• short lags ? overestimation of learning --gt
  decreases (or redistributed) rehearsals.
• Encoding Variability
• Recall depends in part on study context matching
  test context.
• Context changes w/ time
• the greater the lag, the more different the
  encoding contexts, and therefore the more likely
  that one of them will overlap with the test
  context.

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Please try to remember the following list of
words.
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• Moscow
• crow
• redwood
• maple
• squash
• Toledo
• orange
• yellow
• Amsterdam
• python

• Seatle
• moose
• broccoli
• wolf
• blue
• cow
• pine
• tomato
• brown
• sycamore

• hemlock
• carrot
• Paris
• black
• lettuce
• elm
• zebra
• peas
• New York
• red

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Subjective Organization

• A definition organizing structuring a list of
  items, but w/out the experimenter-supplied
  category structure. -- Ashcraft, p. 218
• Subjective-Organization Phenomena
• recall better for lists composes of randomly
  presented sets of category members than for
  random words.
• category members clusters during study recall
  (Bousfield, 1953).
• Recall of random word lists becomes increasingly
  organized w/ practice (Tulving, 1962).

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Experimenter-Provided Organization Bower et at.
1969

• Materials
• 4 hierarchically organized trees
• 112 words in all
• 4 study-test blocks
• Two groups
• Organized words in correct position in trees
• Random words assigned to positions randomly
• Results
• recall ? over blocks
• recall organized gtgt random

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Benefits of Organization

• Encoding Efficiency
• strengthens preexisting superordinate-subordinate
  links intra-category links
• no need to generate encode new elaborations
• Retrieval Efficiency
• category label can be used as retrieval cue
• category knowledge can be used to GENERATE items,
  which can be RECOGNIZED as list members.

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Yet another example

• You will see 2 types of items.
• word pairs just read the items
• CAT-DOG
• Fill-in-the-blank pairs
• NORTH-S____
• read 1st word, and use the initial to generate a
  second word that is a common antonym of the
  first.

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Generation Effect Slamecka Graf (1978)
Generate Condition Hot - C_____
Fast -
S____ (subjects generate second word given first
letter and a rule such as antonym) Read
Condition Hot - Cold Fast -
Slow Result Recall/recognize better for
generated than read words
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Generation Effect Slamecka Graf (1978)

• Defined
• Information you generate is better remembered
  than information you only hear or read.
• Explanation
• Depth of Processing generation condition
  requires deeper processing than read condition

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Levels of Processing Craik Lockhart (1972)

• New processing model for understanding human
  memory.
• Essence of Levels
• emphasis on processes, not stores
• memory is an outgrowth of perception/processing
• shallow (perceptual) vs. deep (meaningful)
  processing

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LoP Craik Lockhart, 1972

• SHALLOW
  Sensory Analyses
• 
  (physical properties)
• 
  Pattern Recognition
• 
  (stimulus identification)
• Elaborative
  Processing
• DEEP
  (imagery, associations)

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LoP Hyde Jenkins (1973)

• Tasks
• study perform oreinting task
• test free recall
• Design
• Orienting X Learning (no orienting
  control)
• very shallow incidental
• shallow intentional
• deep
• Materials 24 words 1 word/3 s

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Hyde Jenkins (1969)

• varied depth of processing
• count es
• count of letters
• make pleasantness judgment
• varied intention to learn
• just do the above task (incidental)
• do the task and learn the list (incid intent)
• learn the list (intentional-only)

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Hyde Jenkins (1969)
Incidental Intentional Intentional Task
Task Only
Pleasantness(semantic) of Letters(nonsemantic)
e Sound(nonsemantic)

• LoP affected
• Intention did not
• semantic process intentional study

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LoP Craik Tulving, 1975

• Encoding Question (trout or kite)
  Level of Analysis
• Is word in uppercase?
  Structural
• Rhyme with shout? Phonemic
• Does word fit in the
  Semantic
• sentence She ate the
  
• _________?

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LoP Craik and Tulving, 1975

• Yes
• No
• Proportion
• Of Words
• Correctly
• Recognized
• Case Rhyme
  Sentence
• 
  Level of Processing

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Craik Lockharts Interperation

• Cog system organized hierarchically
• input processed _at_ different levels sensory ?
  semantic
• product of earlier analysis is input to latter
  analysis
• Memory trace simply a record of those
  analysis
• deeper more semantic analysis yields records
  that are more durable.
• But why?
• Traces
• richer, more elaborate more stuff
• semantic encoding more distinctive

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Criticisms of Levels

• Nelson (1977) 
• circularity there is no independent measure of
  depth in the framework
•  how can you rank order these levels?
• Is it green?
• Is it an animal?
• Does it contain an R?
• Is it GORF reversed?
• Does it rhyme with DOG?

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Value of Levels

• places emphasis on processes
• introduced a techniqueincidental learning with
  an orienting taskfor studying encoding
  processes
• fits well with transfer appropriate processing
  view.

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Context Memory

• Context
• -- stimuli present at the same time as the
  target
• eventn content contextni contextnj
• Context encoded (almost) automatically w/ content
• encoding context can serve as retrieval path
• test context can serve as a retrieval cue
• General Principle
• when test context study context, performance ?

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Two Types of Contexts

• Independent The information setting is
  stored together w/ the trace of the stimulus
  focal element, but does not fundamentally
  change the trace.
• Baddeley, p. 287
• external environmental, location
• internal physiological, emotional
• Interactive An interactive encoding occurs
  when the context actually changes the way in
  which the stimulus focal element is encoded.
  -- Baddeley p. 287
• semantic strawberry JAM vs traffic JAM