Trait Theories

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Trait Theories

• Leadership Traits
• Ambition and energy
• The desire to lead
• Honesty and integrity
• Self-confidence
• Intelligence
• Job-relevant knowledge

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Trait Theories

• Limitations
• No universal traits that predict leadership in
  all situations.
• Traits predict behavior better in weak than
  strong situations.
• Unclear evidence of the cause and effect of
  relationship of leadership and traits.
• Better predictor of the appearance of leadership
  than distinguishing effective and ineffective
  leaders.

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Behavioral Theories

• Trait theoryLeaders are born, not made.
• Behavioral theoryLeadership traits can be
  taught.

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Ohio State Studies
5
University of Michigan Studies
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The Managerial Grid
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
(1,9)
(9,9)
Team Mgmt
Country Club Mgmt
(5,5)
Concern for People
Organization Man Mgmt
Authority Mgmt
Impoverished Mgmt
(9,1)
(1,1)
1 2 3 4
5 6 7 8 9
Concern for Production
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Scandinavian Studies
8
Contingency Theories Fiedlers Model
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Fiedlers Model Defining the Situation
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Findings from Fiedler Model
Task oriented Relationship oriented
Performance
Good
Poor
Favorable
Moderate
Unfavorable
Category Leader-member relations Task
structure Position Power
I II III IV V VI
VII VIII
Good Good Good Good Poor Poor
Poor Poor High High Low Low
High High Low Low Strong Weak Strong
Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak
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Cognitive Resource Theory

• Research Support
• Less intelligent individuals perform better in
  leadership roles under high stress than do more
  intelligent individuals.
• Less experienced people perform better in
  leadership roles under low stress than do more
  experienced people.

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Hersey and Blanchards Situational Leadership
Theory
Follower readiness ability and willingness
Leader decreasing need for support and
supervision
13
Leader-Member Exchange Theory
Personal compatibility, subordinate
competence and/or extroverted personality
Trust
Formal relations
High interactions
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Path-Goal Theory
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Path-goal theory
Environment Task Work group Authority Structure
Leader Behavior Directive/Instrumental Supportive
Achievement Oriented Participative
Subordinate Acceptance Satisfaction Motivation
Subordinate LOC Authoritarianism Ability/Experienc
e Needs
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Substitutes and Neutralizers for Leadership
Relationship- Oriented Leadership
Task- Oriented Leadership
Defining Characteristics
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Contingency Variables in the Revised
Leader-Participation Model
11-5
E X H I B I T
18
Trust The Foundation of Leadership
12-1
E X H I B I T
19
Three Types of Trust
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Leaders as Shapers of Meaning Framing Issues
Leaders use framing (selectively including or
excluding facts) to influence how others see and
interpret reality.
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Charismatic Leadership

• Key Characteristics
• Vision and articulation
• Personal risk
• Environmental sensitivity
• Sensitivity to follower needs
• Unconventional behavior

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Key Characteristics of Charismatic Leaders
12-2
E X H I B I T
23
Transactional and Transformational Leadership

• Contingent Reward
• Management by Exception (active)
• Management by Exception (passive)
• Laissez-Faire

• Charisma
• Inspiration
• Intellectual Stimulation
• Individual Consideration

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Characteristics of Transactional Leaders
12-3a
E X H I B I T
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Characteristics of Transformational Leaders
12-3b
E X H I B I T
26
Visionary Leadership

• Qualities of a Vision
• Inspiration that is value- centered
• Is realizable
• Evokes superior imagery
• Well-articulated

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Qualities of a Visionary Leader

• Has the ability to explain the vision to others.
• Uses own behavior to express the vision.
• Is able to extend the vision to different
  leadership contexts.

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Emotional Intelligence and Leadership
Effectiveness

• Elements of Emotional Intelligence
• Self-awareness
• Self-management
• Self-motivation
• Empathy
• Social skills

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Contemporary Leadership Roles Providing Team
Leadership

• Team Leadership Roles
• Act as liaisons with external constituencies.
• Serve as troubleshooters.
• Manage conflict.

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Contemporary Leadership Roles Mentoring

• Mentoring Activities
• Present ideas clearly
• Listen well
• Empathize
• Share experiences
• Act as role model
• Share contacts
• Provide political guidance

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Moral Leadership

• Actions
• Work to positively change the attitudes and
  behaviors of employees.
• Engage in socially constructive behaviors.
• Do not abuse power or use improper means to
  attain goals.

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Leadership as an Attribution

• Qualities attributed to leaders
• Leaders are intelligent, outgoing, have strong
  verbal skills, are aggressive, understanding, and
  industrious
• Effective leaders are perceived as consistent and
  unwavering in their decisions.
• Effective leaders project the appearance of being
  a leader.

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Substitutes and Neutralizers for Leadership
12-5
E X H I B I T
34
Finding and Creating Effective Leaders

• Selection
• Review specific requirements for the job.
• Use tests that identify personal traits
  associated with leadership, measure
  self-monitoring, and assess emotional
  intelligence.
• Conduct personal interviews to determine
  candidates fit with the job.
• Training
• Recognize that all people are not equally
  trainable.
• Teach skills that are necessary for employees to
  become effective leaders.
• Provide behavioral training to increase the
  development potential of nascent charismatic
  employees.

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Bases of Power

• Coercive Power
• Power that is based on fear.
• Reward Power
• Compliance achieved based on the ability to
  distribute rewards that others view as valuable.
• Legitimate Power
• The power a person receives as a result of his or
  her position in the formal hierarchy of an
  organization.
• Expert Power
• Influence based on special skills or knowledge.
• Referent Power
• Influence based on possession by an individual or
  desirable resources or personal traits.

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Bases of Power
37
Bases of Power
38
Personal Power
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Personal Power
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Measuring Bases of Power

• The person can make things difficult for people,
  and you want to avoid getting him or her angry.
  coercive power
• The person is able to give special benefits or
  rewards to people, and you find it advantageous
  to trade favors with him or her. reward power
• The person has the right, considering his or her
  position and your job responsibilities, to expect
  you to comply with legitimate requests.
  legitimate power
• The person has the experience and knowledge to
  earn your respect, and you defer to his or her
  judgment in some matters. expert power
• You like the person and enjoy doing things for
  him or her. referent power

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Dependency The Key To Power

• The General Dependency Postulate
• The greater Bs dependency on A, the greater the
  power A has over B.
• Possession/control of scarce organizational
  resources that others need makes a manager
  powerful.
• Access to optional resources (e.g., multiple
  suppliers) reduces the resource holders power.
• What Creates Dependency
• Importance of the resource to the organization
• Scarcity of the resource
• Nonsubstitutability of the resource

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Resource Dependency Model of Power
A has power advantage if (1 x 2) gt (3 x 4) B has
power advantage if (1 x 2) lt (3 x 4)
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Power Tactics

• Tactical Dimensions
• Reason
• Friendliness
• Coalition
• Bargaining
• Assertiveness
• Higher authority
• Sanctions

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Use of Power Tactics From Most to Least Popular
13-2
E X H I B I T
45
Power in Groups Coalitions

• Seek to maximize their size to attain influence.
• Seek a broad and diverse constituency for support
  of their objectives.
• Occur more frequently in organizations with high
  task and resource interdependencies.
• Occur more frequently if tasks are standardized
  and routine.

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Sexual Harassment Unequal Power in the Workplace
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Politics Power in Action
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Employee Responses to Organizational Politics
13-5
E X H I B I T
49
Defensive Behaviors

• Avoiding Action
• Overconforming
• Buck passing
• Playing dumb
• Stretching
• Stalling

• Avoiding Blame
• Buffing
• Playing safe
• Justifying
• Scapegoating
• Misrepresenting

• Avoiding Change
• Prevention
• Self-protection

13-6
E X H I B I T
50
Impression Management (IM)

• IM Techniques
• Conformity
• Excuses
• Apologies
• Self-Promotion
• Flattery
• Favors
• Association

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Is Political Action Ethical?
Utilitarianism
Justice
Rights
13-8
E X H I B I T
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Factors Influencing Political Behavior
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Transitions in Conflict Thought

• Causes
• Poor communication
• Lack of openness
• Failure to respond to employee needs

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Transitions in Conflict Thought (contd)
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Functional versus Dysfunctional Conflict
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Types of Conflict
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The Conflict Process
14-1
E X H I B I T
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Stage I Potential Opposition or Incompatibility

• Communication
• Semantic difficulties, misunderstandings, and
  noise
• Structure
• Size and specialization of jobs
• Jurisdictional clarity/ambiguity
• Member/goal incompatibility
• Leadership styles (close or participative)
• Reward systems (win-lose)
• Dependence/interdependence of groups
• Personal Variables
• Differing individual value systems
• Personality types

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Stage II Cognition and Personalization
Conflict Definition
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Stage III Intentions

• Cooperativeness
• Attempting to satisfy the other partys concerns.
• Assertiveness
• Attempting to satisfy ones own concerns.

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Stage III Intentions (contd)
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Stage III Intentions (contd)
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Dimensions of Conflict-Handling Intentions
14-2
E X H I B I T
64
Stage IV Behavior
65
Stage IV Conflict Resolution Techniques

• Problem solving
• Superordinate goals
• Expansion of resources
• Avoidance
• Smoothing
• Compromise
• Authoritative command
• Altering the human variable
• Altering the structural variables

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Stage IV Conflict Stimulation Techniques

• Communication
• Bringing in outsiders
• Restructuring the organization
• Appointing a devils advocate

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Stage V Outcomes

• Functional Outcomes from Conflict
• Increased group performance
• Improved quality of decisions
• Stimulation of creativity and innovation
• Encouragement of interest and curiosity
• Provision of a medium for problem-solving
• Creation of an environment for self-evaluation
  and change
• Creating Functional Conflict
• Reward dissent and punish conflict avoiders

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Stage V Outcomes (contd)

• Dysfunctional Outcomes from Conflict
• Development of discontent
• Reduced group effectiveness
• Retarded communication
• Reduced group cohesiveness
• Infighting among group members overcomes group
  goals

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Negotiation
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Bargaining Strategies
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Distributive versus Integrative Bargaining
14-5
E X H I B I T
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The Negotiation Process
14-7
E X H I B I T
73
Issues in Negotiation

• The Role of Personality Traits in Negotiation
• Traits do not appear to have a significantly
  direct effect on the outcomes of either
  bargaining or negotiating processes.
• Gender Differences in Negotiations
• Women negotiate no differently from men, although
  men apparently negotiate slightly better
  outcomes.
• Men and women with similar power bases use the
  same negotiating styles.
• Womens attitudes toward negotiation and their
  success as negotiators are less favorable than
  mens.

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Third-Party Negotiations
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Third-Party Negotiations (contd)
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Why U.S. Managers Might Have Trouble in
Cross-Cultural Negotiations
14-8
E X H I B I T
77
Success in Negotiation

• Assess your goals and your opponents
• Develop a strategy
• Begin with a positive overture concessions tend
  to be reciprocated in North America
• Pay little attention to initial offers
• Emphasize win-win solutions
• Create an open and trusting climate