2a' Overview of fuels and technologies

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2a. Overview of fuels and technologies
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• Primary energy sources and associated
  transportation fuels
• Coal
• Methanol, Fischer-Tropsch diesel
• Oil
• Gasoline, Diesel, LPG (propane)
• Natural gas
• Methanol, CNG, LNG
• Hydro
• Nuclear
• Solar
• Wind
• Biomass
• Methanol, Ethanol, Biodiesel

• Energy carriers
• Electricity
• Hydrogen
• Energy conversion systems
• IC engines
• Electric vehicles (EV)
• IC-electric hybrids
• Fuel cell vehicles (FCV)
• FCV hybrids

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Table 13.5 De Nevers
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• Gasoline engines lower weight, lower capital
  cost, less efficient than diesel engines,
  preferred in private passenger car and light
  duty vehicles
• Diesel engines higher weight, higher capital
  cost, more efficient than gasoline engines,
  preferred in commercial and heavy duty vehicles

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Fuels for IC engines

• Spark ignition engines
• Gasoline
• Compressed natural gas (CNG)
• Liquefied natural gas (LNG)
• Propane and LPG (liquefied petroleum gases)
• Methanol and methanol-gasoline blends(M85)
• Ethanol and ethanol gasoline blends (E10, E85)
• Hydrogen

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Fuels for IC engines

• Compression ignition engines
• Diesel
• Fischer-Tropsch diesel
• Biodiesel blends (B2, B5, B20)
• Compressed natural gas (CNG) for converted
  diesel engines

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Fuel properties of interest

• Combustion properties, octane number, cetane
  number
• Cost and availability
• Volatility
• Energy density
• Handling (transport and storage) properties
• Atmospheric emissions, CAC and GHG

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Alternative Fuels and Technologies

• Early motivation was for cleaner combustion
  giving reduced air pollutant emissions
• As emission regulations got stricter exhaust
  aftertreatment became the dominant factor in
  controlling emissions rather than the combustion
  stage.
• More recent motivation is reduced GHG emissions
  by using renewable biofuels (ethanol, biodiesel),
  or less carbon intensive fuels (CNG, LNG)
• Full fuel life cycle analysis (well to wheels)
  is required to compare GHG emissions from
  alternate fuels and technologies,

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Fuel sources

• Gasoline, diesel blends of different fractions
  from petroleum refining, 102 individual
  hydrocarbon compounds
• CNG, LNG, LPG petroleum fractions
• Methanol most commonly from natural gas
• steam
  reforming of methane
• 
  catalytic methanol synthesis
• this is also currently the production path of
  most of the hydrogen used in industry. If
  hydrogen production is the objective, CO can be
  further reacted with steam
• note that this releases all the C in CH4 as CO2
  to the atmosphere

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Fuel sources Renewable biofuels

• Ethanol grain, corn, sugarcane, cellulosic
  materials
• Biodiesel plant and animal waste oils, oil from
  soybean, canola, rapeseed

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• Ethanol can be used instead of methanol in the
  transesterification.
• Fatty acids (animal based) can also be used to
  make the ester.
• Thus
• RME - Rapeseed methyl ester
• SME Soybean methyl ester
• REE Rapeseed ethyl ester
• FAME Fatty acid methyl ester
• FAEE Fatty acid ethyl ester

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Life-cycle analysis

• Concern with air pollution tends to focus on the
  vehicle operation stage as the air pollutant
  emissions from this stage affect humans more
  strongly at the local/regional level
• Quantifying GHG emissions is meaningful only at
  the global scale GHG emission reductions from
  the vehicle operation stage are useless if there
  are increased emissions from the upstream stages.
  
• Thus a full life-cycle analysis is absolutely
  required for GHG emissions

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Life-cycle analysis

• Focusing only on the emission reductions from the
  vehicle operation stage when comparing
  alternative fuels and technologies is not
  acceptable even for air pollutant emissions since
  the air pollutant emissions associated with the
  upstream operations may well be important at the
  regional level.
• Thus, hydrogen fuel cell vehicles may have zero
  air pollutant and GHG emissions from the vehicle
  operation stage but have significant air
  pollutant and GHG emissions from the upstream
  stage, depending on the primary energy source and
  how the hydrogen is obtained.
• A full life-cycle analysis is the only meaningful
  way to compare alternate fuels and technologies

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Life-cycle analysis
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Life-cycle analysis Some terms used

• Cradle to grave
• Cradle to cradle
• Well to wheel (WTW)
• Well to tank (WTT)
• Tank to wheels (TTW)

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Life-cycle analysis
Vehicle Cycle
Objective and quantitative evaluation of
environmental performance for fuel/vehicle
technologies
Pre-operation Material production, component
fabrication and vehicle assembly

• FUEL CYCLE

New vehicles
Upstream operations Feedstock and Fuel
production, transportation, storage, and
distribution
Vehicle operation energy conversion and
emissions from combustion
FUEL
Old vehicles
There are energy requirements and pollutant
emissions associated with each of these stages
Post-operation Vehicle disposal and recycling
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Life cycle analysis
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Special Tools/Models for LCA

• General
• SimaPro and others
• Transportation
• GREET, Greenhouse Gases, Regulated Emissions,
  and Energy Use in Transportation (GREET) Model
• (Michael Wang, U.S. DOE Argonne National
  Laboratories)
• LEM, Lifecycle Emissions Model (LEM)
• (Mark Delucchi, University of California,
  Davis)
• GHGenius
• Derived from LEM, Developed and supported by
  Natural Resources Canada (NRCan)
• http//www.ghgenius.com/

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GHGenius

• A model for lifecycle assessment of
  transportation fuels
• Derived from the Lifecycle Emissions Model (LEM)
  (Delucchi, 1991)
• Development and support by Natural Resources
  Canada (NRCan)
• http//www.ghgenius.com/

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GHGenius Fuel upstream operations

• Feedstock Production and Recovery Direct and
  indirect emissions from recovery and processing
  of the raw feedstock, including fugitive
  emissions from storage, handling, upstream
  processing prior to transmission, and mining.
• Leaks and Flaring associated with production of
  oil and gas Fugitive hydrocarbon emissions and
  flaring emissions associated with oil and gas
  production.
• Feedstock Transport Direct and indirect
  emissions from transport of feedstock, including
  pumping, compression, leaks, fugitive emissions,
  and transportation from point of origin to the
  fuel refining plant. Import/export, transport
  distances and the modes of transport are
  considered.

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GHGenius Fuel upstream operations

• Fuel Storage and Distribution at all Stages
  Emissions associated with storage and handling
  of fuel products at terminals, bulk plants and
  service stations. Includes storage emissions,
  electricity for pumping, space heating and
  lighting.
• Fuel Dispensing at the Retail Level Emissions
  associated with the transfer of the fuel at a
  service station from storage into the vehicles.
  Includes electricity for pumping, fugitive
  emissions and spills.

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GHGenius Vehicle cycle operations

• Vehicle Operation Emissions associated with the
  use of the fuel in the vehicle. Includes all
  greenhouse gases.
• Vehicle Assembly and Transport Emissions
  associated with the manufacture and transport of
  the vehicle to the point of sale, amortized over
  the life of the vehicle.
• Materials used in the vehicles Emissions from
  the manufacture of the materials used to
  manufacture the vehicle, amortized over the life
  of the vehicle. Includes lube oil production and
  losses from air conditioning systems

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GHGenius - Greenhouse Gases

• Carbon dioxide (CO2)
• Methane (CH4)
• Nitrous oxide (N2O)
• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC-12)
• Hydrofluorocarbons (HFC-134a)

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GHGenius - Air Contaminants

• Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
• Non-methane organic compounds (NMOCs)
• Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
• Total particulate matter

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GHGenius Fuel/vehicle technologies

• Gasoline
• Diesel
• FTD
• Biodiesel
• Methanol
• Ethanol
• Mixed Alcohols
• Natural Gas
• LPG
• Hydrogen
• Hythane
• Electricity

• Internal combustion engines (ICE)
• Fuel cell vehicles (FC)
• Electric vehicles (EV)

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Case Study 1
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Case Study 2
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Case Study 3
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• GTL Gas to liquid processes for making
  transportation fuels
• CTL coal to liquid
• BTL biomass to liquid
• DME di-methyl ether

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Biofuels on the rise

• Many countries (including Canada) have mandated
  targets for a share of transportation fuels to be
  met by renewable biofuels (mostly ethanol and
  biodiesel at present)
• The motivation has been some combination of
• Energy cost and security
• Climate change
• Rural policies

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Biofuels on the rise

• Concern has been expressed about the rapid
  increase of biofuel production and the
  sustainability of biofuels production on a large
  scale because of
• Environmental issues associated with land use,
  water use, and biodiversity.
• The social and economic sustainability issues,
  such as the interaction between fuel and food
  production and impact on food prices.

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Biofuels on the rise

• Some of the environmental issues are finding
  their way into life-cycle analysis of biofuels,
  along with the quantification of GHG emission
  reductions that can be expected from different
  biofuel pathways.

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