Contrastive grammar

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Contrastive grammar

• Syntax

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Syntax Definition

• Syntax is the rules by which linguistic items are
  combined to make statements.
• Syntax incorporates the grammar /structure of
  phrases, clauses, and sentences

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Sentences/clauses

• A clause is a grammatical unit that 
• includes, at minimum,
• a predicate and an explicit or implied subject,
  and
• expresses a proposition.
• Examples (English) 
• two clauses
• It is cold, although the sun is shining.
• The main clause is it is cold
• the subordinate clause is although the sun is
  shining.

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Sentence

• A sentence is a grammatical unit that is composed
  of one or more clauses.
• The meaning of the term sentence may be expanded
  to include elliptical material and nonproductive
  items. 
• Examples
• After lunch. (in reply to When do you start?)
• Yes.
• Hello.
• Example (English) 
• I am reading a book.

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Predicate

• A predicate is the portion of a clause,
• excluding the subject,
• that expresses something about the subject. 
• Example
• The book is on the table.

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Basic elements

• The sentence
• consists of phrases.
• The central constitutive element is
• the verb phrase/the verb.
• There are normal sentences which consist only of
  the verb phrase.
• Sit!
• BUT
• Sit is in the imperative mood
• Jestem.

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Word order

• Word order
• the order in which words appear in sentences
  across different languages.
• All languages are generally assumed to have a
  basic word order.
• That word order is unmarked.
• it contains no extra information to the listener.
  
• English is SVO, as in "I don't know this,"
• but OSV is possible "This I don't know."
• The OSV is a marked word order because it
  emphasises the object.

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Word order

• These are all possible word orders for the
  subject, verb, and object
• SOV languages include Dutch, German and Japanese.
  
• SVO languages include English and French.
• VSO languages include Classical Arabic and
  Gaelic.
• VOS languages include Fijian.
• OSV languages include Xavante.
• OVS languages include Hixkaryana and Klingon.

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Word order

• There are additional trends in word order.
• SOV languages generally put modifiers (adjectives
  and adverbs) before what they modify, and use
  postpositions.
• VSO languages put modifiers after, and use
  prepositions.
• In SVO languages, either order is possible.
• For example French is SVO.
• It uses prepositions (preposition-object), and
• places adjectives after (head-modifier). However,
  
• a small class of adjectives generally go before
  their heads.

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Word order

• English
• Adjectives always go first (modifier-head).
• Adverbs can go either way, but initially is more
  common.
• Prepositions, but sometimes a sentence (clause)
  is best with a preposition used to end it with
  (depends on the verb).

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Basic differences

• in an analytic language a change of word order
  may result in change of meaning or
  ungrammaticality
• The boy bit the dog
• in a more typically synthetic language inflection
  can take care of the grammatical information
• Psa ugryzl chlopiec
• BUT
• Tramwaj rozbil samochód / Samochód rozbil tramwaj
• AccNom

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Analytic-synthetic

• Some information (some linguistic categories)
  that in a synthetic language
• are transmitted through bound morphemes
• ide
• in an analytic language
• are transmitted through free morphemes (words)
• I am going

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English-Polish Basic differences

• Word order
• English
• primarily analytic
• primarily fixed word order
• word order identifies syntactic functions
• Polish
• primarily synthetic
• becoming analytic
• primarily free word order
• inflection identifies syntactic functions

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More examples

• English
• The girl hit the boy.
• ?The boy hit the girl.
• Hit the girl the boy.
• Polish
• Dziewczynka uderzyla chlopca.
• Uderzyla chlopca dziewczynka.
• Chlopca dziewczynka uderzyla.

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English Functions

• Subject
• NP before (to the left) of VP (Predicate)
• Object
• NP after (to the right) of VP (Predicate)

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English-Polish

• Adjectives
• English
• before the noun (with some exceptions)
• court martial
• Polish
• before or after the noun
• with a difference in meaning
• niedzwiedz brunatny
• brunatny niedzwiedz

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English-Polish

• Determiners
• English only before the noun
• Polish either way

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Syntactic constructions

• a number of English constructions have no
  counterpart in Polish
• I want him to go.
• There is a man in the kitchen.
• It is Mark who will go there.

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• a number of Polish constructions have no
  counterpart in English (and they are difficult to
  analyse)
• Jest mi dobrze.
• Chce mi sie spac.
• Wesolo mi.
• Bo z mezami jest jak z bankami mydlanymi.