Irrational Beliefs

1
Irrational Beliefs

• Chapter 18

2
Reading
3
Key Themes

• Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy
• The theory of rational and irrational beliefs
• The ABC model of human disturbance
• Must-urbatory thinking and disturbance
• Irrational beliefs and their effects on mental
  health
• Issues with irrational beliefs and Rational
  Emotive Behaviour Therapy
• Irrational beliefs and religion
• luck and superstitious beliefs (Further Reading)

4
Learning Outcomes

• Outline the main concepts of Rational Emotive
  Behaviour therapy, and identify the importance of
  irrational beliefs
• Outline the interactions of the ABC model and
  identify how it affects individual differences in
  thoughts, emotions and behaviours
• Outline the theories of religion, luck and
  superstitious beliefs and outline these topics in
  the context of irrational beliefs
• Identify some of the main controversies that
  remain within Rational Emotive Behaviour therapy,
  and outline ways forward for their development in
  order to fully assess the value of the theory for
  individual differences.

5
The Basic Theory of Rational Emotive Behaviour
Therapy (REBT)

• From 1955, Dr. Albert Ellis (Ellis, 1955)
  developed Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy
  (REBT), which is an action-oriented therapeutic
  approach that stimulates emotional growth by
  teaching people to replace their self-defeating
  (irrational) thoughts, feelings and actions with
  new and more effective ones.

6
The Basic Theory of Rational Emotive Behaviour
Therapy (REBT)

• Behind this simple theory, are two main concepts
  of rational thought, and irrational
  (self-defeating) ideas.
• Ellis defines rational thought in the context
  that all people have fundamental goals, purposes
  and values, in life, that underlie their attempts
  to be happy and satisfied. If people choose to
  stay alive and be happy, then they act
  rationally, or self-helpfully, when they think,
  emote and behave in ways to achieve these goals.
• However, people act irrationally, or
  self-defeatingly, when they sabotage these goals
  (Ellis, 1957).

7
The Basic Theory of Rational Emotive Behaviour
Therapy (REBT)

• Froggatt (2005) suggests that to describe a
  belief as irrational is to say that
• Irrational beliefs block the individual from
  achieving their goals and can create extreme
  emotions that persist over time, leading to
  distress and behaviours that harm themselves,
  others and their life in general.
• Irrational beliefs distort reality, as it is a
  misinterpretation of what is actually happening,
  and is not supported by actual or available
  evidence.
• Irrational beliefs contain illogical ways of
  evaluating ourselves, others, and the world

8
The Basic Theory of Rational Emotive Behaviour
Therapy (REBT)

• The ABCs of human disturbance
• Must-urbatory thinking and disturbance.

9
The ABCs of human disturbance

• The theory behind Rational-Emotive Behaviour
  Therapy is based on the fact that people never
  think, emote, or behave in a singular, or rigid
  way. In fact, when an individual emotes
  (experiences emotion), that individual also
  thinks and acts.
• Likewise, when an individual acts, they also
  think and emote. Finally, when an individual
  thinks, they also emote and act.

10
The ABCs of human disturbance
Ellis uses an ABC format to illustrate the role
of cognitions and behaviours within us, and
particularly, concentrates on how people become
emotionally disturbed, or self-defeating. Within
this framework, A stands for our activating
experiences that are of an unpleasant nature,
such as what has happened to us to cause our
unhappiness. B stands for our beliefs, about
usually what happened to us at A. These are
usually irrational, or self-defeating, and are
considered to be the actual sources of our
unhappiness. In other words, from the activating
experiences, individuals bring their beliefs,
values, purposes to these As. They then feel
and act disturbedly at point C their
emotional and behavioural consequences. These
Cs can include negative emotions such as
depression, anxiety and anger. Remember, these
consequences (reactions at C) come about directly
from our beliefs about what happened to us at
point A.

• Ellis (1962) argues that emotions and feelings
  of emotional disturbance are largely due to our
  direct thoughts, ideas, or constructs.
• Ellis (1987) goes so far as to suggest that
  people largely disturb themselves, and it is
  their own unreasonable, or irrational, ideas that
  make them feel anxious, depressed, self-hating,
  angry, self-pitying about almost anything.

11
The ABCs of human disturbance
A.

• Ellis uses an ABC format to illustrate how people
  become emotionally disturbed, or self-defeating.
• A stands for our activating experiences that
  are of an unpleasant nature, such as what has
  happened to us to cause our unhappiness.
• B stands for our beliefs, about usually what
  happened to us at A. These are usually
  irrational, or self-defeating, and are considered
  to be the actual sources of our unhappiness. In
  other words, from the activating experiences,
  individuals bring their beliefs, values, purposes
  to these As
• They then feel and act disturbedly at point C
  their emotional and behavioural consequences
  (depression, anxiety and anger. Consequences (C)
  come about directly from our beliefs (B) about
  what happened to us at point A.

12
An Illustration to Show the ABC format
Figure 18.1 An illustration of the ABC format
13
Example of ABC Format and the Building on Learned
Experiences
Figure 18.2 Example of ABC format and the
building on learned experiences Source Myers
(1997)
14
The ABCs of human disturbance
Ellis uses an ABC format to illustrate the role
of cognitions and behaviours within us, and
particularly, concentrates on how people become
emotionally disturbed, or self-defeating. Within
this framework, A stands for our activating
experiences that are of an unpleasant nature,
such as what has happened to us to cause our
unhappiness. B stands for our beliefs, about
usually what happened to us at A. These are
usually irrational, or self-defeating, and are
considered to be the actual sources of our
unhappiness. In other words, from the activating
experiences, individuals bring their beliefs,
values, purposes to these As. They then feel
and act disturbedly at point C their
emotional and behavioural consequences. These
Cs can include negative emotions such as
depression, anxiety and anger. Remember, these
consequences (reactions at C) come about directly
from our beliefs about what happened to us at
point A.

• More recently Ellis (1991) has added to this ABC
  format to include both D and E to show how these
  irrational beliefs can be altered to more
  rational ones.
• D stands for the therapist, or individual
  themselves, disputing the irrational beliefs, in
  order for the client to ultimately enjoy the
  positive psychological effects, E, of rational
  beliefs.

15
Must-urbatory thinking and disturbance

• Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy also suggests
  profound forms of crooked thinking or
  cognitive slippage that lead to self-defeating
  consequences,
• these are mostly absolutistic evaluations of
  shoulds, oughts, musts, commands and demands.
• In other words, it is in our nature to desire
  goals, and, if we stick to these natural desires,
  then this should rarely cause us emotional
  problems.
• However, it is also within our nature to insist
  that these goals have to be, or must be
  fulfilled at A. If we use these must-urbations
  (or core musts), they will invariably lead to
  both emotional and behavioural problems

16
What are Must-urbations?
Figure 18.3 What are must-urbations?
17
Must-urbatory thinking and disturbance.

• These main must-urbations are known as
  awfulising, low frustration tolerance and
  damnation.
• Awfulising is characterised by words like
  awful, terrible, horrible. I must do well
  and win approval from other people, or else I am
  a horrible person
• The term low-frustration tolerance is used to
  explain a persons perceived inability to put up
  with discomfort or frustration in their life.
  They may feel that happiness is impossible whilst
  such conditions exist things must be easy and
  comfortable in my life or else I cant stand it.
• The third main must-urbation is damnation
  involves feeling either condemned or cursed, you
  must not treat me in this way and you are an
  utter !_at_!! for doing so.

18
Must-urbatory thinking and disturbance.

• Overall, Ellis (1991) sums up must-urbations, or
  core musts as taking the form of absolute
  statements and, instead of acknowledging a
  preference or a desire, suggest that we use this
  way of thinking to make unqualified demands on
  others, and/or ourselves, or we convince
  ourselves that we have overwhelming needs
• Ellis argues that most of these thinking errors
  can be considered under the 3 major headings
• ignoring the positive
• exaggerating the negative, and
• over-generalising

19
Core Musts (Ellis, 1987)
 Albert Ellis, in his Rational Emotive Behavior
Therapy (REBT) identified eleven dysfunctional
beliefs that people often hold. 1. It is a dire
necessity for adult humans to be loved or
approved by virtually every significant other
person in their community. 2. One absolutely must
be competent, adequate and achieving in all
important respects or else one is an inadequate,
worthless person. 3. People absolutely must act
considerately and fairly and they are damnable
villains if they do not. They are their bad
acts. 4. It is awful and terrible when things are
not the way one would very much like them to be.
20
Core Musts (Ellis, 1987)
 5. Emotional disturbance is mainly externally
caused and people have little or no ability to
increase or decrease their dysfunctional feelings
and behaviors. 6. If something is or may be
dangerous or fearsome, then one should be
constantly and excessively concerned about it and
should keep dwelling on the possibility of it
occurring. 7. One cannot and must not face life's
responsibilities and difficulties and it is
easier to avoid them. 8. One must be quite
dependent on others and need them and you cannot
mainly run one's own life. 9. One's past history
is an all-important determiner of one's present
behavior and because something once strongly
affected one's life, it should indefinitely have
a similar effect. 10. Other people's disturbances
are horrible and one must feel upset about
them. 11. There is invariably a right, precise
and perfect solution to human problems and it is
awful if this perfect solution is not found.
21
Core Musts and alternatives

• It is a dire necessity for adults to be loved by
  significant others for almost everything they do.
  rational individuals concentrate on their own
  self-respect, on winning approval for practical
  purpose, and on loving rather than on being
  loved.
• The irrational belief that it is horrible when
  things are not the way we like them to be.
  rational individuals realise that when
  something is not they way they would like it to
  be they try to change or control bad conditions
  so that they become more satisfactory, or, if
  that is not possible, temporarily accept their
  existence.
• The irrational belief that human misery is
  invariably externally caused and is forced on us
  by outside people and events. rational,
  individuals realise that neurosis is largely
  caused by ones own views of unfortunate
  conditions.

22
Core Musts and alternatives

• The irrational belief that we should be
  thoroughly competent, intelligent, and achieving
  in all possible respects. rational, individuals
  realise that it is better to do, rather than
  always need to do well, and accept themselves as
  an imperfect creature, who has general human
  limitations and specific fallibilities.
• The irrational belief that because something once
  strongly affected our life, it should
  indefinitely affect it. rational, individuals
  realise to learn from their past experiences, but
  not be overly attached to, or prejudiced by,
  them.
• The irrational belief that we have virtually no
  control over our emotions and that we cannot help
  feeling disturbed about things. rational,
  individuals realise that we all have real control
  over our destructive emotions if we choose to
  work at changing the must-urbatory hypotheses
  that we often employ to create them.

23
Irrational Beliefs are related to?

• High levels of Anxiety
• High levels of Depression
• Social Dysfunction
• Isolation and withdrawal
• Phobias
• Anger, Guilt, and Jealousy
• Relationship problems involving miscommunication
• Problems of dealing with criticism
• Lack of control over situations
• Low Self-Esteem

24
The Main Aim of Psychotherapy

• Ellis saw the main aim of psychotherapy is to
  help individuals acquire the following six
  personality traits
• Self-interest
• Self-direction
• Tolerance
• Acceptance of uncertainty
• Flexibility
• Self-acceptance.

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Three Irrational Beliefs?
Figure 18.5 Three irrational beliefs?
26
Case for and against religion

• In order for you to better appreciate this
  debate, we will briefly present the case against
  religion, a phrase coined by Ellis himself
  (Ellis, 1980). We will then outline some theory
  and research that opposes, or presents
  counter-arguments to Ellis case.

27
Religion and the main aim of psychotherapy

• Ellis starts out by explaining what the main aim
  of psychotherapy is. It is to help patients
  become less anxious and hostile and to this end,
  it is to help them to acquire the following six
  personality traits to help to develop into
  emotional mature and healthy individuals.
• Self-interest. Traits that reflect ones own true
  thoughts, feeling and ambitions and not reflect a
  tendency to masochistically (derive some
  self-worth from being humiliated or mistreated)
  sacrifice themself for others.
• Tolerance. Traits that allow and give other human
  beings the right to be wrong.

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Religion and the main aim of psychotherapy

• Self-direction. Traits that reflect a person
  taking responsibility for their own life and
  independently working out problems. Traits that
  reflect the ability to cooperate and seek help
  the others are considered healthy, but not traits
  that reflect a need to get the support of others.
  
• Acceptance of uncertainty. Traits that accept
  that we live in a world of chance, where there
  are never any absolute certainties.
• Flexibility. Traits that reflect intellectual
  flexibility, openness to change at all times,
  that dont reflect bigotry, and view the world of
  infinitely varied people, ideas, and things as
  positive.

29
Religion and the main aim of psychotherapy

• Self-acceptance. Traits that reflect a gladness
  to be alive, a person who accepts themselves,
  accepts their current existence and the power to
  enjoy oneself and to create happiness and joy in
  their life and in the world. These are not traits
  that assign worth or value to extrinsic
  achievements (achievements originating from
  factors outside or external to the person), or
  what others think, but are traits that
  acknowledge the persons own existence and
  importance, their ability to think, feel, and
  act, and thereby creating an interesting and
  absorbed life for that person.

30
Case for and against religion

• Ellis uses the following definition of religion
• Belief in a divine or superhuman power or powers
  to be obeyed and worshipped as the creator(s) and
  ruler(s) of the universe (2) expression of this
  belief in conduct and ritual. (Websters New
  World Dictionary)
• A system of beliefs by means of which
  individuals or a community put themselves in
  relation to god or to a supernatural world and
  often to each other, and from which the religious
  person derives a set of values by which to judge
  events in the natural world. (Comprehensive
  Dictionary of Psychological and Psychoanalytical
  Terms English English, 1958)

31
Religion and the main aim of psychotherapy

• Now to religion. Ellis (1980) begins his debate
  against religion by identifying the definitions
  of religion that are most acceptable to him, and
  indeed, what it is within religion that he deems
  irrational.
• Belief in a divine or superhuman power or powers
  to be obeyed and worshipped as the creator(s) and
  ruler(s) of the universe (2) expression of this
  belief in conduct and ritual. (Websters New
  World Dictionary)

32
Other definitions of religion

• When a man becomes conscious of a power above
  and beyond the human, and recognizes a dependence
  of himself upon that power, religion has become a
  factor in his being. (The Columbia
  Encyclopaedia).
• A system of beliefs by means of which
  individuals or a community put themselves in
  relation to god or to a supernatural world and
  often to each other, and from which the religious
  person derives a set of values by which to judge
  events in the natural world. (Comprehensive
  Dictionary of Psychological and Psychoanalytical
  Terms English English, 1958)

33
The case against religion

• However, Ellis believes that, instead of religion
  helping people to achieve healthy personality
  traits, and thereby, helping them avoid becoming
  anxious, depressed, and hostile, religion
  actually does not help at all.
• He argues that in most respects religion
  seriously undermines mental health, as it does
  not encourage the six personality traits we
  outlined above self-interest, self-directedness,
  tolerance, acceptance of uncertainty,
  flexibility, and self-acceptance.

34
The case against religion

• Self-interest traits. According to Ellis,
  religion, first and foremost, is not primarily
  interested in the person it is god-interest.
  In other words, Ellis strongly believes that the
  truly religious person is expected to have no
  real views of his/her own and to have any would
  be presumptuous on the part of the individual.
  Instead, the individual must primarily do the
  work of a God and his/her clergy (the body of
  people who ordained for religious service, e.g.
  vicar, priests, clerics) of his/her religion. In
  this sense, Ellis sees religiosity, to a large
  degree, essentially as masochism (deriving some
  self-worth from being humiliated or mistreated by
  others), a form of mental illness and working
  against self-interest.

35
The case against religion

• Self-direction, Ellis argues that it can easily
  be seen that the religious person is dependent
  on, and directed by, others rather than being
  independent and self-directed. Ellis argues that
  if a person is true to their religious beliefs
  then they must follow and listen to the word of
  their god first, and secondly, to their clergy.
  Religious individuals live their life according
  to their gods and their religions rules whilst
  turning to god, the clergy and religious readings
  for inspiration, advice and guidance. Therefore,
  according to Ellis, religion requires and expects
  certain levels of dependency.

36
The case against religion

• Tolerance. Ellis argues that tolerance is a trait
  that the firmly religious cannot possess or
  encourage as the word of a god and the clergy are
  usually presented as the absolute truth, while
  over groups or viewpoints are considered false.
  As well as this, Ellis believes that religion
  tends not to accept an individuals wrongdoing or
  them making mistakes, and this is where concepts
  such as sinning and punishment for sins occurs.
  Therefore, for Ellis, religion encourages
  intolerance.

37
The case against religion

• Acceptance of uncertainty. Ellis states that one
  of the primary purposes of religion is to
  encourage people to believe in mystical
  certainties, for example there is a god, this god
  is all powerful, this god is all seeing, there is
  life after death, there is heaven and a hell.
  Therefore religious people arent encouraged to
  accept uncertainities.

38
The case against religion

• Flexibility. He argues that flexibility is also
  undermined by religious belief. For instance,
  Ellis raises the issue that the church states
  that thou shalt not covet thy neighbours wife,
  but Ellis wonders, what is wrong about coveting
  someone as long as there is no intention to act?
  He says that religion is not tolerant of
  ambiguity, discussion or debate, but rather is
  presented as universal truths about the world
  (such as the Ten Commandments or religious
  doctrines).

39
The case against religion

• self-acceptance, Ellis states that the religious
  person cannot possibly ever accept themselves
  fully and be satisfied and happy just because
  they are alive. Rather, Ellis sees that the
  religious person makes their self-acceptance
  dependent on the acceptance of their god, their
  church and their clergy. Ellis describes this as
  self-abasement, which is the lowering of oneself
  due to feelings of guilt or inferiority and
  belief that the acceptance is only achieved
  through the praise of others. Therefore, in this
  case the self-abasement of the person in religion
  goes against the development of self-acceptance.

40
The case against religion

• However, Ellis (1980) goes even further, by
  suggesting religion encourages five major
  irrational beliefs
• The idea that it is a dire necessity for an adult
  to be loved or approved of by all the significant
  figures in ones life. Ellis argues that this idea
  is encouraged by religion because even if you
  cannot get people to love you, you can always
  rely on your Gods love. However Ellis maintains
  that the emotional mature person understands that
  it is quite possible for you to live in the world
  whether or not other people accept you. He argues
  that religion doesnt encourage this viewpoint.

41
The case against religion

• The idea that you must be thoroughly competent,
  adequate, and achieving in all possible respects,
  otherwise you are worthless. Ellis argues that
  the religion also encourages this irrational
  belief. Ellis accepts that religion encourages
  the belief that you need not be competent and
  achieving outside the church, because god loves
  you and as you are a good member of your church
  such failures dont matter. However, Ellis argues
  that religion does encourage this irrational
  belief within the confines of religion because it
  sets down the condition that as long as you are
  competent, adequate, and achieving in all aspects
  of your religious life you are a good person,
  but if you are not competent, adequate, and
  achieving in all aspects of your religious life,
  you are then worthless.

42
The case against religion

• The notion that certain people are bad, wicked,
  and villainous and that they should be severely
  blamed and punished for their sins.
• Ellis argues that this belief is the basis of
  virtually all religions. The concepts of guilt,
  blame and sin are integral with religion. For
  example, the religious person is expected to feel
  guilt and accept blame if they sin against their
  religious teachings.

43
The case against religion

• The belief that it is horrible, terrible, and
  catastrophic when things are not going the way
  you would like them to go. According to Ellis,
  this idea is central to religion. Ellis argues
  that the religious person believes that a god is
  there to supervise his/her thoughts and acts and
  protect him/her from the anxiety and frustrations
  of life. Therefore, when there is anxiety and
  frustration in the individuals life, the person
  may feel something must have either gone
  catastrophically wrong with Gods intentions for
  them, or that God has abandoned them.

44
The case against religion

• The idea that human unhappiness is externally
  caused and that people have little or no ability
  to control their sorrows or rid themselves of
  their negative feelings. Once again, Ellis argues
  that this notion is central to religion, since
  religion invariably teaches religious individuals
  that only by trusting in God and praying to him,
  will you be able to understand, control and deal
  with any unhappiness or negative emotions.

45
The case against religion

• To summarise Elliss views, so far, it is clear
  that he concludes that religion is directly
  opposed to the individual achieving emotional
  maturity and good mental health since it
  comprises elements of masochism,
  other-directedness, intolerance, refusal to
  accept uncertainty, inflexibility, and
  self-abasement.
• These arguments against religion, set out by
  Ellis, are indeed stern, and paint a damning
  picture of the religious individual. However, the
  categorisation of religion as an irrational
  belief can be questioned by the findings of
  individual difference psychologists who theorise
  and research outside Rational Emotive Behaviour
  Therapy.

46
Case for religion

• Within religiosity, individual difference
  psychologists have identified three major
  different orientations of religion intrinsic
  religiosity, extrinsic religiosity, and quest
  religiosity, all found to have differing effects
  on mental health for the individual.
• The chapter on social attitudes (Chapter 21),
  which contains a section on religion, can give
  you expanded information on these three religion
  orientations and their relationship to mental
  health, but we can briefly summarise the main
  points here.

47
Case for religion Intrinsic

• First, is intrinsic religiosity, which Allport
  (Allport, 1966 Allport Ross, 1967) describes
  as individuals living their religious beliefs and
  where the influence of which religion is evident
  in every aspect of their life. In other words,
  for those whose religion is intrinsic, they see
  religion as an end in itself, they take it very
  seriously and it is central to their lives.
• Allport argues that intrinsic religious
  individuals central aims and needs in life are
  found within their religion other aims and needs
  are regarded as less significant.
• Thus, having embraced a particular religion, the
  individual endeavours to internalise it and
  follow its philosophy and teachings fully. It is
  in this sense that the intrinsic individual lives
  their religion.

48
Case for religion Intrinsic

• This particular orientation towards religion that
  directly opposes Ellis views of religion as
  irrational, as extensive research findings show
  that intrinsic religiosity can be beneficial to
  mental health
• Research shows a multitude of benefits for this
  religious orientation, but the most important,
  here, are the findings that intrinsic religious
  individuals show lower levels of anxiety and
  depression as well as very high levels of
  self-esteem. Intrinsic religious individuals
  have also been shown positive ways of coping in
  times of stress
• Therefore, we can suggest, here, that, in fact,
  intrinsic religious people definitely have
  self-interest, self-direction and
  self-acceptance, and some of these findings in
  relation to positive mental health outcomes,
  might undermine Ellis case against religion.

49
Case for religion? Extrinsic

• Second is an extrinsic religiosity, which Allport
  defines as the individual using religion to
  provide participation in a powerful in-group,
  seeking social status and which includes the
  individual seeking protection and consolation in
  their religion.
• For example, within this dimension, individuals
  look to religion for comfort, relief, and
  protection, and using religious practices, such
  as prayer, for peace and happiness. They also
  look to places of worship (such as a church) for
  making friends and feeling part of a social
  group.

50
Case for religion? Extrinsic

• Now, it is suggested that this particular
  orientation towards religion may support Ellis
  views of religion. Indeed, extensive research
  findings show that extrinsic religiosity is
  associated with poorer mental health. For
  example extrinsic religiosity is related to
  higher levels of neuroticism, anxiety and
  depression as well as very low levels of
  self-esteem. These people are also shown to
  possess more negative ways of coping in times of
  stress.
• Therefore, we can suggest that by considering
  Allports description of the extrinsic religious
  person and the research evidence relating
  extrinsic religiosity to poorer mental health,
  that extrinsic religious people may be possibly
  exposing themselves to aspects of religion that
  encourage masochism, dependency, intolerance, and
  self-debasement.

51
Other cases

• Belief in Good Luck
• Superstition

52
Revision Advice

• Revision Advice
• Were looking at irrational beliefs in terms of
  religion, belief in good luck, superstition.
• Challenge is to read additional information on
  belief in good luck and superstition
• Condense down the information on religion
• Furnish this with further material
• Assume knowledge of irrational beliefs, give a
  quick summary

53
Key Themes

• Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy
• The theory of rational and irrational beliefs
• The ABC model of human disturbance
• Must-urbatory thinking and disturbance
• Irrational beliefs and their effects on mental
  health
• Issues with irrational beliefs and Rational
  Emotive Behaviour Therapy
• Irrational beliefs and religion
• luck and superstitious beliefs (Further Reading)