DEVELOPMENTAL PSIKOLOGI Pertemuan 13 S.d. 16

1
DEVELOPMENTAL PSIKOLOGIPertemuan 13 S.d. 16
Matakuliah L0014 Tahun 2007
2

• Nature vs Nurture
• Maturation
• Systematic psychical growth of the body,
  including the nervous system
• Imprinting
• A form of early learning that occurs in some
  animals during a critical period
• Critical Period
• A biologically determined period in the life of
  some animals during which certain forms of
  learning can take place most easily
• Rooting Reflex
• An automatic response in which an infant turns
  its head toward stimulation on the cheek
• Babinsky Reflex

3
DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES

1. Jean Piaget
2. Kohlberg
3. Carol Gilligan
4. Eric Erikson

4
JEAN PIAGET (1)Theory of Cognitive Development

• Expanding on earlier work from James Mark
  Baldwin four levels of development corresponding
  roughly to (1) infancy, (2) pre-school, (3)
  childhood, and (4) adolescence.
• Each stage is characterized by a general
  cognitive structure that affects all of the
  child's thinking (a structuralist view influenced
  by philosopher Immanuel Kant
• Each stage represents the child's understanding
  of reality during that period, and each but the
  last is an inadequate approximation of reality.
• Development from one stage to the next is thus
  caused by the accumulation of errors in the
  child's understanding of the environment this
  accumulation eventually causes such a degree of
  cognitive disequilibrium that thought structures
  require reorganizing.

5
JEAN PIAGET (2)Theory of Cognitive Development

• The four development stages are described in
  Piaget's theory as
• Sensorimotor stage from birth to age 2 years
  (children experience the world through movement
  and senses and learn object permanence)
• Preoperational stage from ages 2 to 7
  (acquisition of motor skills)
• Concrete operational stage from ages 7 to 11
  (children begin to think logically about concrete
  events)
• Formal operational stage after age 11
  (development of abstract reasoning).
• Piaget viewed children as little philosophers,
  which he called tiny thought-sacks and scientists
  building their own individual theories of
  knowledge. Some people have used his ideas to
  focus on what children cannot do. Piaget,
  however, used their problem areas to help
  understand their cognitive growth and
  development.

6
JEAN PIAGET (3)Theory of Cognitive Development

• Piaget provided no concise (or clear) description
  of the development process as a whole. Broadly
  speaking it consisted of a cycle
• The child performs an action which has an effect
  on or organizes objects, and the child is able to
  note the characteristics of the action and its
  effects.
• Through repeated actions, perhaps with variations
  or in different contexts or on different kinds of
  objects, the child is able to differentiate and
  integrate its elements and effects. This is the
  process of reflecting abstraction (described in
  detail in Piaget 2001).
• At the same time, the child is able to identify
  the properties of objects by the way different
  kinds of action affect them. This is the process
  of empirical abstraction.
• By repeating this process across a wide range of
  objects and actions, the child establishes a new
  level of knowledge and insight. This is the
  process of forming a new cognitive stage. This
  dual process allows the child to construct new
  ways of dealing with objects and new knowledge
  about objects themselves.
• However, once the child has constructed these new
  kinds of knowledge, he or she starts to use them
  to create still more complex objects and to carry
  out still more complex actions. As a result, the
  child starts to recognize still more complex
  patterns and to construct still more complex
  objects. Thus a new stage begins, which will only
  be completed when all the childs activity and
  experience have been re-organized on this still
  higher level.

7
JEAN PIAGET (4)Theory of Cognitive Development

• Genetic epistemology"attempts to explain
  knowledge, and in particular scientific
  knowledge, on the basis of its history, its
  sociogenesis, and especially the psychological
  origins of the notions and operations upon which
  it is based"
• Jean Piaget has become a reference for
  epistemology, and particularly for constructivist
  epistemology. According to Ernst von Glasersfeld,
  Jean Piaget is "the great pioneer of the
  constructivist theory of knowing"

8
KOHLBERG (1)Stages of Moral Development

• the theory was inspired by the work of Jean
  Piaget and a fascination with children's
  reactions to moral dilemmas
• His theory holds that moral reasoning, which is
  the basis for ethical behavior, has six
  identifiable developmental constructive stages -
  each more adequate at responding to moral
  dilemmas than the last

9
KOHLBERG (2)Stages of Moral Development

• Level 1 (Pre-Conventional)
• 1. Obedience and punishment orientation
• 2. Self-interest orientation
• ?( What's in it for me?)
• Level 2 (Conventional)
• 3. Interpersonal accord and conformity
• ?( The good boy/good girl attitude)
• 4. Authority and social-order maintaining
  orientation
• ? ( Law and order morality)
• Level 3 (Post-Conventional)
• 5. Social contract orientation
• 6. Universal ethical principles
• ? ( Principled conscience)

10
KOHLBERGPre-conventional

• The pre-conventional level of moral reasoning is
  especially common in children, although adults
  can also exhibit this level of reasoning.
  Reasoners in the pre-conventional level judge the
  morality of an action by its direct consequences.
  The pre-conventional level consists of the first
  and second stages of moral development, and are
  purely concerned with the self in an egocentric
  manner.
• In Stage one, individuals focus on the direct
  consequences that their actions will have for
  themselves. For example, an action is perceived
  as morally wrong if the person who commits it
  gets punished. The worse the punishment for the
  act is, the more 'bad' the act is perceived to
  be.12 In addition, there is no recognition that
  others' points of view are any different from
  one's own view. This stage may be viewed as a
  kind of authoritarianism.
• Stage two espouses the what's in it for me
  position, right behavior being defined by what is
  in one's own best interest. Stage two reasoning
  shows a limited interest in the needs of others,
  but only to a point where it might further one's
  own interests, such as you scratch my back, and
  I'll scratch yours.3 In stage two concern for
  others is not based on loyalty or intrinsic
  respect. Lacking a perspective of society in the
  pre-conventional level, this should not be
  confused with social contract (stage five), as
  all actions are performed to serve one's own
  needs or interests. For the stage two theorist,
  the perspective of the world is often seen as
  morally relative.

11
KOHLBERGConventional

• The conventional level of moral reasoning is
  typical of adolescents and adults. Persons who
  reason in a conventional way judge the morality
  of actions by comparing these actions to societal
  views and expectations. The conventional level
  consists of the third and fourth stages of moral
  development.
• In Stage three, the self enters society by
  filling social roles. Individuals are receptive
  of approval or disapproval from other people as
  it reflects society's accordance with the
  perceived role. They try to be a good boy or good
  girl to live up to these expectations,3 having
  learned that there is inherent value in doing so.
  Stage three reasoning may judge the morality of
  an action by evaluating its consequences in terms
  of a person's relationships, which now begin to
  include things like respect, gratitude and the
  'golden rule'. Desire to maintain rules and
  authority exists only to further support these
  stereotypical social roles. The intentions of
  actions play a more significant role in reasoning
  at this stage 'they mean well...'.3
• In Stage four, it is important to obey laws,
  dictums and social conventions because of their
  importance in maintaining a functioning society.
  Moral reasoning in stage four is thus beyond the
  need for individual approval exhibited in stage
  three society must learn to transcend individual
  needs. A central ideal or ideals often prescribe
  what is right and wrong, such as in the case of
  fundamentalism. If one person violates a law,
  perhaps everyone would - thus there is an
  obligation and a duty to uphold laws and rules.
  When someone does violate a law, it is morally
  wrong culpability is thus a significant factor
  in this stage as it separates the bad domains
  from the good ones.

12
KOHLBERGPost-conventional

• The post-conventional level, also known as the
  principled level, consists of stages five and six
  of moral development. Realization that
  individuals are separate entities from society
  now becomes salient. One's own perspective should
  be viewed before the society's. It is due to this
  'nature of self before others' that the
  post-conventional level, especially stage six, is
  sometimes mistaken for pre-conventional
  behaviors.
• In Stage five, individuals are viewed as holding
  different opinions and values. Along a similar
  vein, laws are regarded as social contracts
  rather than rigid dictums. Those that do not
  promote general social welfare should be changed
  when necessary to meet the greatest good for the
  greatest number of people.8 This is attained
  through majority decision, and inevitably
  compromise. In this way democratic government is
  ostensibly based on stage five reasoning.
• In Stage six, moral reasoning is based on
  abstract reasoning using universal ethical
  principles. Laws are valid only insofar as they
  are grounded in justice, and that a commitment to
  justice carries with it an obligation to disobey
  unjust laws. Rights are unnecessary as social
  contracts are not essential for deontic moral
  action. Decisions are not met hypothetically in a
  conditional way but rather categorically in an
  absolute way (see Immanuel Kant's 'categorical
  imperative'13). This can be done by imagining
  what one would do being in anyone's shoes, who
  imagined what anyone would do thinking the same
  (see John Rawls's 'veil of ignorance'14). The
  resulting consensus is the action taken. In this
  way action is never a means but always an end in
  itself one acts because it is right, and not
  because it is instrumental, expected, legal or
  previously agreed upon. While Kohlberg insisted
  that stage six exists, he had difficulty finding
  participants who consistently used it. It appears
  that people rarely if ever reach stage six of
  Kohlberg's model

13
CAROL GILLIGAN (1)Theory of Moral Development

• she criticized Kohlberg's research on the moral
  development of children, which at the time showed
  that girls on average reached a lower level of
  moral development than boys did
• Gilligan pointed out that the participants in
  Kohlberg's basic study were largely male, and
  that the scoring method Kohlberg used tended to
  favor a principled way of reasoning that was more
  common to boys, over a moral argumentation
  concentrating on relations, which would be more
  amenable to girls. Kohlberg saw reason to revise
  his scoring methods as a result of Gilligan's
  critique, after which boys and girls scored
  evenly.
• Her work formed the basis for what has become
  known as the ethics of care, a theory of ethics
  that contrasts ethics of care to so-called ethics
  of justice.

14
CAROL GILLIGAN (2)Theory of Moral Development

• Morality as Individual Survival
• What is right is what is good for him/her
• Follow rules to obtain rewards for themselves and
  to avoid punishment
• Morality as Self-Sacrifice
• Attained after becoming aware of the needs of
  others
• Believes that to be good and to be approved by
  others, they must sacrifices their own needs and
  meet the needs of others
• Morality as Equality
• Views his/her own needs as equal to those of
  others
• Stage of advocacy of non violence it is not
  right for anyone to be intentionally hurt,
  including the person himself/herself

15
Erik Erikson (1)Theory of Psychosocial
Development

• Erik Erikson believed that every human being goes
  through a certain amount of stages to reach their
  full development. There are 8 stages, that a
  human being goes through from birth to death
• Erikson always insisted that he was a Freudian,
  he is better described as a Neo-Freudian,
  Subsequent authors have described him as an "ego
  psychologist,"
• In contrast to the stress laid in orthodox
  Freudianism on the id, Erikson emphasised the
  ego. Perhaps the most conspicuous way in which
  his theory differs from that of Freud is that,
• In contrast to Freud's list of stages that take
  development up through adolescence, Erikson lists
  eight stages of development, spanning the entire
  lifespan

16
Erik Erikson (2)Theory of Psychosocial
Development

• Each of Erikson's stages of psychosocial
  development are marked by a conflict, for which
  successful resolution will result in a favorable
  outcome
• Stage One Oral-Sensory from birth to one, trust
  vs. mistrust (ex. feeding)
• Stage Two Muscular-Anal 1-3 years, autonomy vs.
  shame (ex. toilet training)
• Stage Three Locomotor 3-6 years, initiative
  vs. guilt (ex. Independence)
• Stage Four Latency 6-12 years, industry vs.
  inferiority (ex. school)
• Stage Five Adolescence 12-18 years, identity
  vs. confusion (ex. peer relationships)
• Stage Six Young Adulthood 18-40 years, intimacy
  vs. isolation (ex. love relationships)
• Stage Seven Middle Adulthood 40-65 years,
  generativity vs. stagnation (ex. Parenting)
• Stage Eight Maturity 65 years until death,
  integrity vs. despair (ex. acceptance of one's
  life)

17
Erik Erikson (3)Theory of Social Development

• 1.  Learning Basic Trust Versus Basic Mistrust
  (Hope)Chronologically, this is the period of
  infancy through the first one or two years of
  life.  The child, well - handled, nurtured, and
  loved, develops trust and security and a basic
  optimism.  Badly handled, he becomes insecure and
  mistrustful. 
• 2.  Learning Autonomy Versus Shame (Will)The
  second psychosocial crisis, Erikson believes,
  occurs during early childhood, probably between
  about 18 months or 2 years and 3½ to 4 years of
  age.  The "well - parented" child emerges from
  this stage sure of himself, elated with his new
  found control, and proud rather than ashamed. 
  Autonomy is not, however, entirely synonymous
  with assured self - possession, initiative, and
  independence but, at least for children in the
  early part of this psychosocial crisis, includes
  stormy self - will, tantrums, stubbornness, and
  negativism.  For example, one sees may 2 year
  olds resolutely folding their arms to prevent
  their mothers from holding their hands as they
  cross the street.  Also, the sound of "NO" rings
  through the house or the grocery store.
• 3.  Learning Initiative Versus Guilt
  (Purpose)Erikson believes that this third
  psychosocial crisis occurs during what he calls
  the "play age," or the later preschool years
  (from about 3½ to, in the United States culture,
  entry into formal school).  During it, the
  healthily developing child learns (1) to
  imagine, to broaden his skills through active
  play of all sorts, including fantasy (2) to
  cooperate with others (3) to lead as well as to
  follow.  Immobilized by guilt, he is (1) fearful
  (2) hangs on the fringes of groups (3) continues
  to depend unduly on adults and (4) is restricted
  both in the development of play skills and in
  imagination.  

18
Erik Erikson (4)Theory of Social Development

• 4.  Industry Versus Inferiority
  (Competence)Erikson believes that the fourth
  psychosocial crisis is handled, for better or
  worse, during what he calls the "school age,"
  presumably up to and possibly including some of
  junior high school.  Here the child learns to
  master the more formal skills of life (1)
  relating with peers according to rules (2)
  progressing from free play to play that may be
  elaborately structured by rules and may demand
  formal teamwork, such as baseball and (3)
  mastering social studies, reading, arithmetic. 
  Homework is a necessity, and the need for
  self-discipline increases yearly.  The child who,
  because of his successive and successful
  resolutions of earlier psychosocial crisis, is
  trusting, autonomous, and full of initiative will
  learn easily enough to be industrious. However,
  the mistrusting child will doubt the future. The
  shame - and guilt-filled child will experience
  defeat and inferiority. 
• 5.  Learning Identity Versus Identity Diffusion
  (Fidelity)During the fifth psychosocial crisis
  (adolescence, from about 13 or 14 to about 20)
  the child, now an adolescent, learns how to
  answer satisfactorily and happily the question of
  "Who am I?"  But even the best - adjusted of
  adolescents experiences some role identity
  diffusion most boys and probably most girls
  experiment with minor delinquency rebellion
  flourishes self - doubts flood the youngster,
  and so on.
• Erikson believes that during successful early
  adolescence, mature time perspective is
  developed the young person acquires
  self-certainty as opposed to self-consciousness
  and self-doubt.  He comes to experiment with
  different - usually constructive - roles rather
  than adopting a "negative identity" (such as
  delinquency).  He actually anticipates
  achievement, and achieves, rather than being
  "paralyzed" by feelings of inferiority or by an
  inadequate time perspective.  In later
  adolescence, clear sexual identity - manhood or
  womanhood - is established.  The adolescent seeks
  leadership (someone to inspire him), and
  gradually develops a set of ideals (socially
  congruent and desirable, in the case of the
  successful adolescent).  Erikson believes that,
  in our culture, adolescence affords a
  "psychosocial moratorium," particularly for
  middle - and upper-class American children.  They
  do not yet have to "play for keeps," but can
  experiment, trying various roles, and thus
  hopefully find the one most suitable for them

19
Erik Erikson (5)Theory of Social Development

• 6.  Learning Intimacy Versus Isolation (Love)The
  successful young adult, for the first time, can
  experience true intimacy - the sort of intimacy
  that makes possible good marriage or a genuine
  and enduring friendship.
• 7.  Learning Generativity Versus Self-Absorption
  (Care)In adulthood, the psychosocial crisis
  demands generativity, both in the sense of
  marriage and parenthood, and in the sense of
  working productively and creatively.
• 8.  Integrity Versus Despair (Wisdom)If the
  other seven psychosocial crisis have been
  successfully resolved, the mature adult develops
  the peak of adjustment integrity.  He trusts, he
  is independent and dares the new.  He works hard,
  has found a well - defined role in life, and has
  developed a self-concept with which he is happy. 
  He can be intimate without strain, guilt, regret,
  or lack of realism and he is proud of what he
  creates - his children, his work, or his
  hobbies.  If one or more of the earlier
  psychosocial crises have not been resolved, he
  may view himself and his life with disgust and
  despair.