NATS 101 Lecture 31 Climate and Climate Change

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NATS 101Lecture 31Climate and Climate Change

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Climate Overview

• Climate classified largely in terms of
• Temperature Precipitation (vs.
  evaporation)

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Koppen Climate Classification Groups

• A. Topical Moist no winter
• B. Dry Potential evapotranspiration gt
  precipitation
• C. Moist Mid-Latitude with mild winter
• D. Moist Mid Latitude with severe winter
• E. Polar cold, Tlt10oC
• H. Highland
• Global map

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More classification detail

• Af Tropical rain forest
• Am Tropical monsoon
• Aw Tropical wet and dry
• BW Arid desert
• BS Semi-arid
• Cfa Humid subtropical
• Cfb Cfc Marine
• Cs Mediterranean dry summer
• Cw Dry winter

Dfa humid continental long hot summer Dfb humid
continental long cool summer Dfc subpolar cool
short summer Dw Dry winter ET polar tundra EF
Polar ice cap H Highland
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What is Climate CHANGE?

• Climate change - A significant shift in the mean
  state and event frequency of the atmosphere.
• Climate change is a normal component of the
  Earths natural variability.
• Climate change occurs on all time and space
  scales.
• A plethora of evidence exists that indicates the
  climate of the Earth has changed.

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Determining the Past Climate

• Paleoclimatology - the study of past climates.
• Past 100-200 years (weather observations)
• Must use indirect climate measures, proxies, to
  examine further into the past. Some proxies
• - Tree rings (1,000 years before present BP)
• - Trapped pollen (10,000 years BP)
• - Glacial ice cores (100,000 years BP)
• - Ocean sediment cores (1 Million years BP)
• - Geology (1 Billion years BP)

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Ice Core from Vostok, Antarctica

• During last ice age (gt18,000 years ago)
• Temps 6oC colder
• CO2 levels 30 lower
• CH4 levels 50 lower
• H2O levels were lower
• than current interglacial.
• What caused what?

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Most Recent Ice Age
Extend of continental glaciers 18,000 years
BP. Sea level was 100-125 m lower than present.
Bering land bridge between Siberia and Alaska.
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SST 18,000 years BP
18,000 BP
Today
Ahrens, Fig 13.2
Much cooler over the North Atlantic Ocean. Ocean
currents were undoubtedly different.
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Temperatures Since Last Ice Age
Glacial advance
Apline advance
Glacial retreat
Rapid melt
Ahrens, Fig 13.3
Rapid warming occurred at end of Younger-Dryas
period. Ice cores indicate that Ice Age
conditions ended in 3 years!
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Climate Changes Affect Mankind
Viking settlements lost in Greenland
Viking colonization in Greenland
Ahrens, Fig 13.4
Temperatures for eastern Europe during the last
1200 years.
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Evidence of Climate Change
Ahrens, Fig 13.5
Surface temperatures based on meteorological
observations. Is the warming of the past century
due to human activities?
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Controversial Hockey Stick
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Causes of Climate Change

• Atmospheric Composition - Anything that changes
  the radiative properties of the atmosphere
  (volcanic aerosols, carbon dioxide).
• Astronomical - Anything that alters the amount or
  distribution of solar energy intercepted by the
  Earth (solar variations, orbital variations).
• Earths Surface - Anything that alters the flow
  of energy at the Earth's surface or changes its
  distribution (desertification, continental drift).

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Causes of Climate Change
Astronomical
Composition
Surface
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Milankovitch Theory of Ice Ages

• Attempts to explain ice ages by variations in
  orbital parameters
• Three cycles
• Eccentricity (100,000 yrs)
• Tilt (41,000 yrs)
• Precession (23,000 yrs)
• Changes the latitudinal and seasonal
  distributions of solar radiation.

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Milankovitch Theory of Ice Ages

• Ice ages occur when there is less radiation in
  summer to melt snow.
• Partially agrees with observations, but many
  questions unanswered.
• What caused the onset of the first Ice Age?

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MilankovitchTheory
Change in daily solar radiation at top of
atmosphere at June solstice Changes as large as
15 occur
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Long-Term Climate Change

• 250 million years ago, the worlds landmasses
  were joined together and formed a super continent
  termed Pangea.
• As todays continents drifted apart, they moved
  into different latitude bands.
• This altered prevailing winds and ocean currents.

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Long-Term Climate Change

• Circumpolar ocean current formed around
  Antarctica 40-55 MY ago once Antarctica and
  Australia separated.
• This prevented warm air from warmer latitudes to
  penetrate into Antarctica.
• Absence of warm air accelerated growth of the
  Antarctic ice sheet.

http//www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/eae/Climate_Change/Older/
Continental_Drift.html
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Long-Term Climate Change

• Circumpolar seaway leads to large latitudinal
  temperature gradient.
• Circum-equatorial seaway leads to small
  latitudinal temperature gradient

http//www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/eae/Climate_Change/Older/
Continental_Drift.html
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Our changing climate

• Our climate is changing.
• In particular, surface temperatures are
  increasing. gt 1998 or 2005 is the warmest year
  in the past 400 years, and perhaps much longer

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Global mean temperatures are rising faster with
time
Period Rate Years ?/decade
IPCC
From K. Trenberth
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Our changing climate

• Arctic is warming faster than most other regions,
  largely as predicted by climate models
• This raises questions about ice melt and sea
  level rise
• Western US may warm and dry significantly (8oF in
  50-100 years?)

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Our changing climate Key Questions

• Climate modelers have predicted the Earths
  surface will warm because of manmade greenhouse
  gas (GHG) emissions
• So how much of the warming is manmade?
• How serious are the problems this is creating?
• What, if anything, can and should we do?

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The Natural Greenhouse Effect clear sky
CH4 N20 6
O3 8
Water Vapor 60
Carbon Dioxide 26
Clouds also have a greenhouse effect
Kiehl and Trenberth 1997
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Our changing climate Increasing CO2
concentrations

• 2 most important greenhouse gases H2O, CO2
• Man is modifying the CO2 concentrations via
  burning fossil fuels
• CO2 concentrations are higher than any time in
  the last 400,000 years (NOAA site).
• Amounts are now beyond the range of natural
  variations experienced over the past 700,000
  years
• Predictions are for CO2 concentrations to
  continue increasing to 1.5 to 3 times present
  values by 2100 (NOAA site)

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Changing CO2 concentrations

• CO2 concentrations have varied naturally by a
  factor of 2 over the past few hundred thousand
  years
• Fossil fuel burning since the industrial
  revolution has created a sharp increase in CO2
  concentrations
• CO2 concentrations are now higher than at any
  time in past few hundred thousand years
• And concentrations are increasing faster with time

Last 4 Ice Age cycles 400,000 years
Man made
You are here
See http//epa.gov/climatechange/science/recentac.
html
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Ice Core from Vostok, Antarctica

• During last ice age (gt18,000 years ago)
• Temps 6oC colder
• CO2 levels 30 lower
• CH4 levels 50 lower
• H2O levels were lower
• than current interglacial.
• 130,000 years ago it was a bit warmer than today
• 50 change in CO2 associated with 8oC change in
  temperature
• 6-8oC decrease in temperature produced incredibly
  different climate Ice Age

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Changing atmospheric composition CO2 Mauna Loa,
Hawaii
Data from Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics
Lab., NOAA. Data prior to 1974 from C. Keeling,
Scripps Inst. Oceanogr.
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Increasing CO2 concentrations

• How high will they go?
• How warm will it get???

You are going to be here
Last 4 Ice Age cycles 400,000 years
Man made
You are here
Ice age CO2 range
See http//epa.gov/climatechange/science/futureac.
html
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Our changing climate Can we predict it?

• Yes, but with uncertainty.
• Models do seem to be getting better

From Hansen, J., Mki. Sato, R. Ruedy, K. Lo, D.W.
Lea, and M. Medina-Elizade 2006. Global
temperature change. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 103,
14288-14293, doi10.1073/pnas.0606291103.
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GLOBAL Energy Flow Thru Atmosphere
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Global Atmo Energy Balance
In a stable climate, Solar Energy IN IR Energy
OUT
Ahrens, Fig. 2.14
IR Out
Solar in
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Global Atmo Energy Imbalance
Increasing GHG concentrations decrease Energy
out So Energy IN gt Energy OUT and the Earth warms
Ahrens, Fig. 2.14
IR Out is reduced
Solar in
Atmosphere
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Annual Energy Balance
Radiative Warming
Radiative Cooling
Radiative Cooling
NH
SH
Ahrens, Fig. 2.21

• Heat transfer from low latitudes to high
  latitudes by winds and ocean currents will likely
  change
• Differential heating and spinning Earth drive
  winds and currents
• This horizontal transfer will likely change as
  climate changes

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Mid-Latitude Cyclones

• Winter storms move tropical air poleward and
  polar air toward the tropics.
• Net result is to transport energy poleward

mP
cP
mT
Ahrens, Meteorology Today, 5th Ed.
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Ocean Currents of World
Ahrens Fig. 7.24
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Change in IR Emission to Space

• Notice that because of Earths greenhouse gases,
  91 (64/70) 195/235 83 of the IR emitted to
  space comes from the atmosphere and only 9
  (6/70) 40/235 17 comes from the surface
• When GHGs are added to the atmosphere, the
  altitude of IR emission to space rises
• In the troposphere, air temperature decreases
  with altitude
• So the temperature of the emission to space
  decreases
• So the energy emission to space decreases because
  the emission energy decreases with decreasing
  temperature

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Change in IR Emission to Space

• BEFORE GHG increase INOUT AFTER GHG increase

3. IR emission to space decreases because of
colder emission temperature
IR emission to space
SH
NH
Ahrens, Fig. 2.21
1. Altitude of IR emission to space rises
Altitude of IR emission to space
Altitude
Temperature of IR emission to space
2. Temperature of IR emission to space decreases
Temperature
Temperature
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Change in IR Emission to Space (contd)

• AFTER GHG increase INgtOUT Eventual solution
  INOUT

6. IR emission to space increases until it
matches the original IR emission before GHG
increases
3. IR emission to space decreases because of
colder emission temperature
SH
SH
Ahrens, Fig. 2.21
4. Atmosphere warms until
Ahrens, Fig. 2.21
1. Altitude of IR emission to space rises
5. Temperature of IR emission to space increase
to original temperature
2. Temperature of IR emission to space decreases
Temperature
Temperature
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Complexity of Climate System
The climate system involves numerous,
interrelated components.
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Closer Look at Climate System
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Climate Feedback Mechanisms
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Positive and Negative Feedbacks

• Assume that the Earth is warming.
• - Warming leads to more evaporation from oceans,
  which increases water vapor in atmosphere.
• -More water vapor increases absorption of IR,
  which strengthens the greenhouse effect.
• -This raises temperatures further, which leads
  to more evaporation, more water vapor, warming
• Runaway Greenhouse Effect
• Positive Feedback Mechanism

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Positive and Negative Feedbacks

• Again assume that the Earth is warming.
• - Suppose as the atmosphere warms and moistens,
  more low clouds form.
• - More low clouds reflect more solar radiation,
  which decreases solar heating at the surface.
• - This slows the warming, which would counteract
  a runaway greenhouse effect on Earth.
• Negative Feedback Mechanism

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Positive and Negative Feedbacks

• Atmosphere has a numerous checks and balances
  that counteract climate changes.
• All feedback mechanisms operate simultaneously.
• All feedback mechanisms work in both directions.
• The dominant effect is difficult to predict.
• Cause and effect is very difficult to prove at
  the beyond a shadow of a doubt level.

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Key Points Climate Change

• Proxy data are used to infer the past climate.
• Data show that the Earths Climate
• Has changed in the past
• Is changing now
• And will continue to change
• Key question is determining whether recent
  changes are due to natural causes or man.

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Key Points Climate Change

• The climate system is very complex.
• Contains hundreds of feedback mechanisms
• All feedbacks are not totally understood.
• Three general climate change mechanisms
• Astronomical
• Atmospheric composition
• Earths surface

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Assignment for Next Lecture

• Topic - Anthropogenic Climate Change
• Reading - Ahrens, p 391-399
• Problems - 14.12, 14.15, 14.16, 14.19
• NOVA Whats Up with the Weather?