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Contents
CHAPTER FOCUS SECTION 1 Group Behavior SECTION
2 Conformity and Obedience SECTION
3 Conflict and Cooperation CHAPTER
SUMMARY CHAPTER ASSESSMENT
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Chapter Focus 1
Chapter Objectives
Section 1 Group Behavior

• Explain that a group is a collection of people
  who interact, share common goals, and influence
  how members think and act. Explore how groups are
  unified by the attitudes and standards members
  share and their commitment to them. ?

Section 2 Conformity and Obedience

• Describe how you may engage in behavior because
  of direct or indirect group pressure or in
  response to orders given by authorities.

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Chapter Focus 2
Chapter Objectives (cont.)
Section 3 Conflict and Cooperation

• Explore conflicts between groups that result
  because groups influence how individuals perceive
  and respond to situations.

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End of Chapter Focus
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Section 1-1
Readers Guide
Main Idea

• A groupa collection of people who interact,
  share common goals, and influence how members
  think and actis unified by the attitudes and
  standards members share and by their commitment
  to them. ?

Objectives

• Define and explain different types of groups. ?

• Describe the interactive patterns within groups.

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Section 1-2
Readers Guide (cont.)
Vocabulary

• group ?

• task functions ?
• social functions ?
• norms ?
• ideology ?
• social facilitation ?
• social inhibition ?
• group polarization ?
• groupthink ?
• sociogram

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Section 1-3
What Are Groups?

• A group is a collection of people who interact,
  share common goals, and influence how members
  think and act. ?

• In general, the features that distinguish a group
  from an aggregate (a nongroup) are
  interdependence, shared goals, and communication.

group a collection of people who have shared
goals, a degree of interdependence, and some
amount of communication
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Section 1-4
What Are Groups? (cont.)

• People who congregate but do not interact are not
  considered a group but rather an aggregate. ?

• Interaction is the key factor in forming a group.
  ?
• Several people who interact form a group.

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Section 1-5
Interdependence

• To be classified as a group, a collection of
  people must demonstrate interdependence. ?

• Interdependence occurs when any action by one
  member will affect or influence the other
  members. ?
• In small groups, members usually have a direct
  influence on one another one member communicates
  directly with another. ?
• In larger groups, the influence may be indirect.

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Section 1-6
Interdependence (cont.)

• Communication is crucial to the functions of a
  group. ?

• In some cases, the communication is directed
  outward as a declaration of group membership. ?
• In other instances, the communication is
  internal, intended primarily for group members to
  announce group activities. ?

• Direct communication aids members feelings of
  belonging.

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Section 1-7
Shared Goals

• Group members become interdependent because they
  share common goals. ?

• Groups are usually created to perform tasks or to
  organize activities that no individual could
  handle alone.

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Section 1-8
Shared Goals (cont.)

• The purposes groups serve are of two general
  kinds ?

• task functions ?

• social functions ?

• In most groups, task and social functions are
  combined naturally and cannot be separated
  easily, although one dominates in any given group.

task functions activities directed toward getting
a job done
social functions responses directed toward
satisfying the emotional needs of members
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Section 1-9
How Groups Are Held Together

• The factors that work to hold groups
  togetherthat increase the groups
  cohesivenessinclude ?

• the attitudes and standards they share ?
• their commitment to them

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Section 1-10
Norms

• Unwritten rules that govern the behavior and
  attitudes of group members are called norms. ?

• They include rulesshared beliefs about the
  correct way to behave and what to believe.

norms shared standards of behavior accepted by
and expected from group members
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Section 1-11
Norms (cont.)

• These rules may be more like tendencies or
  habits. ?

• Group members are expected to act in accordance
  with group norms and are punished in some way if
  they do not. ?
• If the norm is very important to the group, a
  member who violates it may endure a more severe
  social reaction or may be excluded from the group.

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Section 1-12
Ideology

• For a group to be cohesive, members must share
  the same values. ?

• In some cases, people are drawn together because
  they discover they have common ideas, attitudes,
  and goalsthat is, a common ideology.

ideology the set of principles, attitudes, and
defined objectives for which a group stands
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Section 1-13
Ideology (cont.)

• Some people are attracted to a group because its
  ideology provides them with a new set of goals
  and means for achieving them. ?

• Leaders, heroes and heroines, rallies, books and
  pamphlets, slogans, and symbols all help
  popularize an ideology, win converts, and create
  feelings of solidarity among group members.

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Section 1-14
Commitment

• One factor that increases individual commitment
  is the requirement of personal sacrifice. ?

• If a person is willing to pay money, endure
  hardship, or undergo humiliation to join a group,
  he or she is likely to continue with it. ?
• Cohesiveness will be high if members are
  committed to their group. ?
• Another factor that strengthens group commitment
  is participation.

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Section 1-15
Commitment (cont.)

• The processes that hold a group together must
  work both ways. ?

• The individual must be responsive to the norms of
  the group, subscribe to its ideology, and be
  prepared to make sacrifices to be part of it. ?
• The group must also respond to the needs of its
  members. ?
• It cannot achieve cohesiveness if its norms are
  unenforceable, if its ideology is inconsistent
  with the beliefs of its members, or if the
  rewards it offers do not outweigh the sacrifices
  it requires.

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Section 1-16
Types of Groups

• Groups can be differentiated by in-groups and
  out-groups and primary and secondary groups. ?

• When a groups members identify with their group,
  they are referred to as the in-group. ?
• The out-group includes everyone who is not a
  member of the in-group. ?

• A primary group is a group of people who interact
  daily face-to-face. ?
• A secondary group is a larger group of people
  with whom you might have more impersonal
  relationships.

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Section 1-17
Social Facilitation Versus Social Inhibition

• Social facilitation refers to the tendency to
  perform better in the presence of a group. ?

• At times, however, you may perform poorly in
  front of crowds. ?
• This is an example of social inhibition.

social facilitation an increase in performance in
front of a crowd
social inhibition a decrease in performance in
front of a crowd
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Section 1-18
Social Facilitation Versus Social Inhibition
(cont.)

• Social facilitation and social inhibition may
  occur because the presence of a crowd increases
  ones drive or arousal. ?

• Psychologist Robert Zajonc (1965) noticed that
  social facilitation seemed to occur when
  participants performed simple or well-learned
  tasks. ?
• Social inhibition occurred when participants
  performed more complex tasks or tasks that
  involved unfamiliar factors to the participants.

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Section 1-19
Social Facilitation Versus Social Inhibition
(cont.)

• The effect of a crowd on your behavior may also
  be a reflection of your concern about being
  evaluated.

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Section 1-20
Interactions Within Groups

• Providing an individual with values and a sense
  of identity is only one aspect of the groups
  meaning to him or her. ?

• The particular role he or she plays in the
  groups activities is also important. ?
• The study of the roles various members play in
  the group and how these roles are interrelated is
  the study of group structure.

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Section 1-21
Interactions Within Groups (cont.)

• There are many aspects to group structure ?

• the personal relationships between individual
  members, such as liking relationships and
  trusting relationships ?
• the rank of each member on a particular
  dimension, such as power, popularity, status, or
  amount of resources ?
• the roles various members play

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Section 1-22
Interactions Within Groups (cont.)

• A role is behavior expected of an individual
  because of his or her membership in a particular
  group. ?

• Each of us has multiple roles that shift as we
  merge with different groups. ?
• Occasionally, we may find ourselves in role
  conflict, such as if you switch schools and your
  old school plays your new school in football.

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Section 1-23
Decision Making

• Most groups must make decisions. ?

• Group polarization and groupthink are two
  processes of group decision making.

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Section 1-24
Decision Making (cont.)Group Polarization

• According to group polarization, the majoritys
  point of view is reinforced through group
  discussion. ?

• If opinions of a group are equally split on an
  issue before a discussion, though, the group
  discussion usually results in compromise.

group polarization theory that group discussion
reinforces the majoritys point of view and
shifts group members opinions to a more extreme
position
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Figure 1-1
Group Polarization
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Section 1-25
Decision Making (cont.)Groupthink

• When groups emphasize sticking together and fail
  to adequately appraise alternative courses of
  action, they are guilty of groupthink. ?

• Group members may refrain from criticizing one
  another, and they may not discuss opposing
  viewpoints or critically evaluate the situation.

groupthink poor group decision making that occurs
as a result of a group emphasizing unity over
critical thinking
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Section 1-26
Decision Making (cont.)How to Improve Group
Decision Making

• Leaders should avoid strongly advocating their
  own views and, instead, encourage group
  discussion. ?

• During discussion, group members should hear all
  viewpoints and challenge one anothers views. ?
• Also, group members should focus on the taskthe
  issue to be discussed or the problem to be
  resolved.

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Section 1-27
Decision Making (cont.)How to Improve Group
Decision Making

• Group members should not focus on group unity
  when making decisions. ?

• They should focus on keeping the lines of
  communication open and gathering enough
  information to make an unbiased decision.

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Section 1-28
Communication Patterns

• When studying groups, social psychologists use a
  technique called the sociogram to analyze group
  structure. ?

• Sociograms can help psychologists predict how
  that individual is likely to communicate with
  other group members.

sociogram a diagram that represents relationships
within a group, especially likes and dislikes of
members for other members
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Section 1-29
Communication Patterns (cont.)

• Another way to discover the structure of a group
  is to examine the communication patterns in the
  groupwho says what to whom and how often. ?

• A centralized organization seems more useful for
  task-oriented groups, whereas a decentralized
  network is more useful in socially oriented
  groups.

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Figure 1-2
Sociograms
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Section 1-30
Leadership

• All groups, whether made up of students, workers,
  Girl Scouts, or politicians, have leaders. ?

• A leader embodies the norms and ideals of the
  group and represents the group to outsiders. ?
• Within the group, a leader initiates action,
  gives orders, makes decisions, and settles
  disputes.

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Section 1-31
Leadership (cont.)

• Most of us think of leadership as a personality
  trait. ?

• One psychologist (Stogdill, 1974) identified
  leadership as being an aspect of personalitythe
  ability to get people to comply. ?
• Other researchers (Blake Mouton, 1985) argue
  that leaders are concerned to some degree with
  both output (that is, the task) and the welfare
  of the people.

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Section 1-32
Leadership (cont.)

• Another way to think of leadership is as the end
  product of the reinforcements of the group being
  led (Berry Houston, 1993). ?

• In this way, leadership is simply the center or
  focus of group action, an instrument for
  achieving the groups goal or a result of group
  interaction (Stogdill, 1974). ?
• Different circumstances call for different kinds
  of leaders.

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Section 1-33
Leadership (cont.)

• One kind of leadership is called transformational
  leadership. ?

• This leadership produces large-scale
  organizational change by changing the goals of
  group members and deepening their commitment. ?
• Transformational leaders are charismatic, they
  provide individualized attention to group
  members, and they are able to enthuse and
  intellectually stimulate group members.

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Figure 1-3
Leavitts Communication Network System
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Section 1-34
Leadership (cont.)Leadership Styles

• The three leadership styles are authoritarian,
  laissez-faire, and democratic. ?

• An authoritarian leader makes all the decisions
  and assigns tasks to group members. ?
• A laissez-faire leader is only minimally involved
  in a groups decision making. ?
• A democratic leader encourages group members to
  come to decisions through consensus.

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Section 1-Assessment 1
Section Assessment
Review the Vocabulary Explain how groups
organized for task functions differ from those
organized for social functions.
Task function groups exist to get the job done.
Social function groups exist to fulfill the
emotional needs of members.
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Section 1-Assessment 2
Section Assessment (cont.)
Visualize the Main Idea Using a graphic
organizer similar to the one found on page 554 of
your textbook, identify and describe three styles
of leadership.
Authoritarian leaders make all the decisions and
assign tasks. Laissez-faire leaders are minimally
involved and let the group make its own
decisions. Democratic leaders encourage groups to
make decisions through consensus.
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Section 1-Assessment 3
Section Assessment (cont.)
Recall Information What is the difference
between an in-group and an out-group. Give an
example of each group.
In-group members identify with their group. All
non-members of the group are the out-group. An
example is an athletic team that considers all
people who are not starters on the team as the
out-group.
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Section 1-Assessment 4
Section Assessment (cont.)
Think Critically When might a group benefit from
a laissez-faire style of leadership? When might a
group benefit from authoritarian leadership?
Answers will vary.
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Section 1-Assessment Close
Section Assessment (cont.)
What kind of interaction occurs with each model? ?
Explain why the Circle network is slower but more
satisfying than the Wheel network for solving
tasks.
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End of Section 1
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Section 2-1
Readers Guide
Main Idea

• You may engage in behavior because of direct or
  indirect group pressure or in response to orders
  given by authorities. ?

Objectives

• Identify ways that groups can influence an
  individuals behavior. ?

• Explain why most people tend to obey authority
  figures.

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Section 2-2
Readers Guide (cont.)
Vocabulary

• conformity ?

• obedience

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Section 2-3
Group Pressure to Conform

• Psychologist Solomon Asch (1952) designed what
  has become a classic experiment to test
  conformity to pressure from ones peers. ?

• Conformity involves any behavior that you engage
  in because of direct or indirect group pressure.

conformity acting in accordance with some
specified authority
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Section 2-4
Group Pressure to Conform (cont.)

• Asch found that people may conform to other
  peoples ideas of the truth, even when they
  disagree. ?

• Asch found that almost one-third of his 50
  participants conformed at least half the time to
  the viewpoint of five hired actors. ?
• These conformers he called theyielders. ?
• Asch called those who did not conform
  independents.

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Section 2-5
Group Pressure to Conform (cont.)

• According to one theory, most children are taught
  the overriding importance of being liked and of
  being accepted. ?

• Conformity is the standard means of gaining this
  approval.

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Figure 2-1
Aschs Experiment
These two cards were shown to participants in one
trial of Aschs experiment on conformity. The
participants task was to determine whether the
length of the standard line matches the length of
the comparison lines. The actual discrimination
is easy.
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Section 2-6
Why Do People Conform?

• One of the most important findings of Aschs
  experiment was that if even one person among the
  first five actors failed to conform to the
  groups judgment, the participant was able to
  stick to his own perceptions. ?

• It seems that it is hardest to stand alone. ?
• Later researchers have shown that under some
  conditions, a minority view can come to win over
  the larger group (Moscovici, 1985).

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Section 2-7
Why Do People Conform? (cont.)

• A minority dissenter may also serve an
  informational purpose by making others question
  whether the majority view is actually right. ?

• In Aschs experiment, participants conformedthey
  responded to match the other group members
  responses, yet they might not have actually
  changed their beliefs that the lines matched. ?
• This is an example of compliance.

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Section 2-8
Why Do People Conform? (cont.)

• Compliance occurs when we give in to social
  pressure in our public behavior however, we do
  not actually change our private beliefs. ?

• A method of gaining compliance is the
  foot-in-the-door technique. ?
• This occurs when you get a person to agree to a
  relatively minor request. ?
• This minor request, which the participant is
  likely to agree with, is really a set-up for a
  major request.

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Section 2-9
Why Do People Conform? (cont.)

• There are several factors that increase
  conforming behavior in people including ?

• belonging to a group that emphasizes the role of
  groups rather than individuals ?
• the desire to be liked by other members of the
  group ?
• low self-esteem ?
• social shyness ?
• lack of familiarity with a task ?
• group size ?
• cultural influences

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Section 2-10
Obedience to Authority

• The influence other people have on your attitudes
  and actions is considerable. ?

• Obedience, or behavior in response to orders
  given by authorities, can be either useful or
  destructive. ?

• Psychologists are more interested in the negative
  aspects of obedience.

obedience a change in attitude or behavior
brought about by social pressure to comply with
people perceived to be authorities
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Section 2-11
Obedience to Authority (cont.)

• They know from cases in history such as German
  Nazism and American atrocities in Vietnam that
  individuals frequently obey irrational commands. ?

• In fact, people often obey authority even when
  obedience goes against their conscience and their
  whole system of morality.

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Section 2-12
The Milgram Experiment

• Psychologist Stanley Milgram conducted the most
  famous investigation of obedience in 1963. ?

• Milgram wanted to discover how far participants
  in an experiment would follow his instructions
  and how much electric shock they would be willing
  to give a fellow human being.

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Section 2-13
The Milgram Experiment (cont.)

• As the experiment began, the learner
  continually gave wrong answers, and the teacher
  began to administer the prescribed shocks from an
  impressive-looking shock generator. ?

• The generator had a dial that ranged from 15
  volts, which was labeled Slight Shock, to 450
  volts, which was labeled Danger Severe Shock.
  ?
• After each of the learners mistakes, the teacher
  was told to increase the voltage by one level.

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Section 2-14
The Milgram Experiment (cont.)

• As the experiment progressed, the learner made
  many mistakes, and the teacher was instructed to
  give increasingly severe shocks. ?

• The experiment ended either when the maximum 450
  volts was administered or when the teacher
  refused to administer any more shocks. ?
• If at any point the teacher indicated that he
  wanted to stop, the experimenter calmly told him
  to continue. ?

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Section 2-15
The Milgram Experiment (cont.)

• Sixty-five percent of the participants delivered
  the full range of shocks. ?

• What accounts for this surprisingly high level of
  obedience? ?
• Part of the answer is that the experimenter
  represents a legitimate authority. ?
• People assume that such an authority knows what
  he is doing, even when his instructions seem to
  run counter to their own standards of moral
  behavior.

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Section 2-16
The Milgram Experiment (cont.)

• Milgrams experiment is important because it
  questions so many different aspects of
  psychology. ?

• The experiment raised questions about the ethics
  of some psychological experiments. ?
• Since the experiment, the APA has changed the
  ethical standards for experiments. ?
• Today all experiments, especially those that
  could cause harm to the participants, are
  carefully screened by research committees.

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Section 2-17
The Zimbardo Experiment

• Philip Zimbardo and his colleagues (Haney
  Zimbardo, 1975) performed an experiment that
  randomly divided male volunteers into two groups
  prisoners and prison guards. ?

• Zimbardo sent both groups to live in a simulated
  prison set up in the basement of a Stanford
  University building. ?
• He gave the guards instructions to maintain
  order.

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Section 2-18
The Zimbardo Experiment (cont.)

• Within two days, most of the guards had become
  intoxicated with power, and they acted cruelly
  toward the prisoners, often without reason. ?

• At the same time, the prisoners began showing
  signs of extreme stress, often acting subdued and
  depressed. ?
• The emotional reactions were so extreme that
  experimenters ended the planned two-week
  experiment after only six days.

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Section 2-19
The Zimbardo Experiment (cont.)

• Although the participants in this experiment were
  emotionally mature and stable, the roles these
  individuals adopted changed the way they acted. ?

• The experiment not only changed the ethical
  standards of experimentation in psychology but it
  also demonstrated the power that situations can
  have in changing how we feel, think, and behave.
  ?
• The social situation of being in the prison
  changed the rules, roles, and expectations of the
  students (Zimbardo, 1975).

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Section 2-20
The Zimbardo Experiment (cont.)Why Do People
Obey?

• Psychologists have proposed that people learn to
  obey authority figures. ?

• Throughout our lives, we have learned to follow
  orders. ?
• However, we are more likely to follow these rules
  when the authority figure is actually present.

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Section 2-Assessment 1
Section Assessment
Review the Vocabulary Give an example of a way
you show conformity.
Answers will vary. Think of useful ways to
conform, as well as ways that can lead to poor
decision making or harmful behavior.
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Section 2-Assessment 2
Section Assessment (cont.)
Visualize the Main Idea Duplicate and complete
the chart found on page 562 of your textbook
describing the Asch experiment.
Hypothesis People will conform to a group
decision even if they know it is wrong. Method
Describe the various trials and the results of
each trial. Results Describe the results of
yielders and independents.
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Section 2-Assessment 3
Section Assessment (cont.)
Recall Information How is compliance related to
to conformity?
Compliance is a change in behavior without an
accompanying change in thinking. Outwardly, the
person appears to be conforming.
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Section 2-Assessment 4
Section Assessment (cont.)
Think Critically Do you think that conforming to
a group is always a negative thing to do? Explain.
No. Some examples include wearing coats in cold
weather and abiding by societys traffic
regulations.
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Section 2-Assessment Close
Section Assessment (cont.)
Recently in a college dorm 3 people died in a
fire. Although the alarm sounded, there had been
18 false alarms in the same dorm in the four
months preceding the fire. How can something like
repeated false alarms dull the senses to the
point that antisocial or harmful behavior seems
acceptable?
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End of Section 2
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76
Section 3-1
Readers Guide
Main Idea

• Conflicts between groups are a fact of everyday
  life because groups influence how individuals
  perceive and respond to situations. ?

Objectives

• Explain causes of group conflict and cooperation.
  ?

• Summarize how group dynamics promote or restrain
  altruism and aggression.

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564 of your textbook.
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Section 3-2
Readers Guide (cont.)
Vocabulary

• aggression ?

• catharsis ?
• altruism ?
• diffusion of responsibility ?
• bystander effect ?
• social loafing ?
• deindividuation

Click the Speaker button to listen to Exploring
Psychology.
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display the information. Section 3 begins on page
564 of your textbook.
78
Section 3-3
Aggression

• Any behavior that is intended to cause physical
  or psychological harm is called aggression. ?

• It seems that our society is being torn apart by
  increasing violence and aggression. ?
• Psychologists have proposed several theories to
  explain aggression.

aggression behavior intended to do physical or
psychological harm to others
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79
Figure 3-1
A Model of Aggression
80
Section 3-4
Biological Influences

• Psychologists have proposed that humans have
  innate biological factors that cause aggression. ?

• Neurotransmitters, such as serotonin, influence a
  persons aggressive behavior. ?
• When a person has too much serotonin in the
  brain, he or she may experience violent
  outbursts. ?
• Psychologists, though, warn against labeling
  aggression as caused by only biological factors.

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81
Section 3-5
Cognitive Factors

• Psychologist Albert Bandura proposes that
  children learn aggressive behavior by observing
  and imitating their parents. ?

• His social learning theory also proposes that
  aggressive behavior may be reinforced in several
  ways ?

• Parents who use aggression to discipline their
  children may be teaching their children to use
  aggression. ?
• The mediatelevision, movies, video games, and
  musicmay also be teaching aggressive behavior to
  children.

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82
Section 3-6
Personality Factors

• Certain personality traits, such as impulsiveness
  and having little empathy, combined with favoring
  domination can turn a person into a bully. ?

• Usually past experience is the best predictor. ?
• An aggressive child usually becomes an aggressive
  adult.

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83
Section 3-7
Environmental Factors

• Sometimes something provokes you and you become
  violent. ?

• Psychologists explain acts of violence that arise
  from unexpected situations with the
  frustration-aggression hypothesis. ?
• This is the idea that frustration or a failure to
  obtain something expected leads to aggression. ?
• The hypothesis, though, fails to note that
  frustration does not always lead to aggressive
  behavior.

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84
Section 3-8
Environmental Factors (cont.)

• Leonard Berkowitz (1989) proposed a modified
  frustration-aggression hypothesis. ?

• Berkowitz proposed that frustration leads to
  aggression only in certain instances.

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85
Section 3-9
Controlling Aggression

• Aggression is a combination of biological,
  cognitive, personality, and environmental
  factors. ?

• One method of controlling aggression is through
  catharsis. ?
• Critics of catharsis believe that any expression
  of aggression is negative.

catharsis releasing anger or aggression by
letting out powerful negative emotions
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86
Section 3-10
Controlling Aggression (cont.)

• Other strategies of controlling aggression
  include punishing children for violent behavior
  and cutting down on the violence they observe. ?

• Aggressive behavior can be controlled by teaching
  people to accept frustrations and move on and to
  react to disappointments in ways other than
  violence.

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87
Section 3-11
Group Conflict Versus Cooperation

• Conflicts between groups are a fact of everyday
  life. ?

• A group of psychologists (Sherif Hovland, 1961)
  created a boys camp to study intergroup
  relations. ?
• From the beginning of the experiment, the boys
  were divided into two groups. ?
• The psychologists had hypothesized that when
  these two groups of boys were placed in
  competitive situations, where one group could
  achieve its goals only at the expense of the
  other, hostility would develop.

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88
Section 3-12
Group Conflict Versus Cooperation (cont.)

• The psychologists demonstrated the ease with
  which they could produce unity within the two
  boys groups and hatred between them. ?

• The experimenters then tried to see what might
  end the conflict and create harmony between the
  two groups. ?
• They deliberately invented a series of
  emergencies so that the boys either would have
  to help one another or lose the chance to do or
  get something they all wanted.

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89
Section 3-13
Group Conflict Versus Cooperation (cont.)

• Gradually, through cooperative activities,
  intergroup hostility and tensions lessened. ?

• The results of this experiment showed that the
  crucial factor in eliminating group hostility was
  cooperation. ?
• The question of conflict applies to large
  communities, too, but then the possibility of a
  social trap is greater. ?
• A social trap occurs when individuals in a group
  decide not to cooperate.

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90
Section 3-14
Group Conflict Versus Cooperation (cont.)

• One approach to overcome a social trap is to use
  laws to bring about behavior changes. ?

• Other ways to change peoples behavior is to
  educate them concerning the issues and to
  communicate the idea that Yes, you do make a
  difference. ?
• In this way, people find it more beneficial to
  cooperate than to act in a purely selfish manner.

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91
Section 3-15
Altruism

• Altruism means helping another, often with a risk
  to oneself, for reasons other than the
  expectation of a reward. ?

• Whether you help or not may depend on the
  diffusion of responsibility.

altruism helping others, often at a cost or risk,
for reasons other than rewards
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92
Section 3-16
Diffusion of Responsibility

• Sometimes when several people are faced with a
  common problem and there is no opponent, they may
  not even see themselves as a group. ?

• There have been many famous examples of muggings,
  rapes, and murders that were committed in public
  while a large group of people watched without
  intervening or calling for help. ?
• Psychologists have tried to find out why these
  people did not act by studying artificial crises.

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93
Section 3-17
Diffusion of Responsibility (cont.)

• Psychologists have suggested that this behavior
  was the result of diffusion of responsibility. ?

• In other words, because several people were
  present, each participant assumed someone else
  would help.

diffusion of responsibility the presence of
others lessens an individuals feelings of
responsibility for his or her actions or failure
to act
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94
Section 3-18
Diffusion of Responsibility (cont.)

• The researchers found that in experiments where
  people could see the other participants, the same
  pattern emerged. ?

• The bystander effect occurs when a person
  refrains from taking action because of the
  presence of others.

bystander effect an individual does not take
action because of the presence of others
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95
Section 3-19
Diffusion of Responsibility (cont.)

• These findings suggest that the larger the crowd
  or group of bystanders, the more likely any given
  individual is to feel that he or she is not
  responsible for whatever is going on (Darley
  Latané, 1968). ?

• Another influence that inhibits action is the
  tendency to minimize the need for any response. ?
• It is easier to persuade yourself that nothing
  needs to be done if you look around and see other
  people behaving calmly.

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96
Section 3-20
Diffusion of Responsibility (cont.)

• Both the presence of a leader and being familiar
  with the person needing help, however, increase
  the likelihood and speed of help being offered. ?

• The same is true of knowing what kind of help is
  required, seeing the correct form of assistance
  being modeled, or expecting future interactions
  with the person needing help. ?
• These situations increase the chances that
  assistance will be offered when it is most needed
  (Baron Byrne, 1991).

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97
Section 3-21
Diffusion of Responsibility (cont.)Social Loafing

• Your evaluations of a situation also may lead to
  social loafing. ?

• Social loafing occurs when you allow your
  contributions to the group to slack off because
  you realize that individual contributions are not
  as apparent and easily measured in a group
  setting.

social loafing the tendency to work less hard
when sharing the workload with others
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98
Section 3-22
Diffusion of Responsibility (cont.)Deindividuatio
n

• When people act as individuals, obey their
  consciences, and are concerned with
  self-evaluation, we think of them as
  individualistic. ?

• When deindividuation occurs, people lose their
  sense of self and follow group behaviors.

deindividuation individuals behave irrationally
when there is less chance of being personally
identified
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99
Section 3-23
Diffusion of Responsibility (cont.)Deindividuatio
n

• The deindividuated person acts without thinking
  about self and goes along with the group. ?

• Researchers believe that being in a crowd may
  reduce feelings of guilt or self-awareness that
  one ordinarily feels. ?
• Social pressure can affect us in positive ways,
  too. ?
• Maybe you went out of your way to act
  compassionately while others witnessed your
  actions.

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100
Section 3-Assessment 1
Section Assessment
Review the Vocabulary How does diffusion of
responsibility affect individuals in a group?
Individuals are less likely to act and take
responsibility when others are around because
they expect someone else to act.
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101
Section 3-Assessment 2
Section Assessment (cont.)
Visualize the Main Idea Using a graphic
organizer like the one shown on page 570 of your
textbook, compare and contract aggression and
altruism.
Aggression is intended to do physical or
psychological harm. Altruism is the act of
helping others without expecting a reward, and it
may involve risk. The overlap exists in that both
acts are voluntary and involve a choice by the
individual.
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display the answer.
102
Section 3-Assessment 3
Section Assessment (cont.)
Recall Information What is deindividuation, and
how does it occur?
Deindividuation is irrational behavior performed
by an individual when there is little or no
chance of being identified. It occurs when people
lose their sense of self and let the group direct
their behavior.
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103
Section 3-Assessment 4
Section Assessment (cont.)
Think Critically Do you think that most students
work harder on projects they must complete alone
for a grade or on team projects in which no
individual grades are given? Explain your
reasoning.
Answers will vary and will likely depend on the
individual and the amount of pressure exerted by
the group.
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104
Section 3-Assessment Close
Section Assessment (cont.)
Why did you help or not help when your fellow
classmate accidentally dropped his or her
belongings?
105
End of Section 3
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slide.
106
Chapter Summary 1
Section 1 Group Behavior

• To be classified as a group, a collection of
  people must demonstrate interdependence. ?

• Groups serve two general purposes task functions
  and social functions. ?
• To be part of a group, an individual must be
  responsive to the norms of the group, subscribe
  to its ideology, and be prepared to make
  sacrifices in order to be part of it. ?
• Groups can be differentiated by in-groups and
  out-groups and primary and secondary groups.

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107
Chapter Summary 2
Section 1 Group Behavior (cont.)

• Research has shown that social facilitation seems
  to occur when participants perform simple tasks,
  whereas social inhibition seems to occur when
  participants perform more complex tasks. ?

• Group polarization and groupthink are two
  processes of group decision making.

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108
Chapter Summary 3
Section 2 Conformity and Obedience

• Psychologists believe that people conform to gain
  approval. ?

• Compliance occurs when an individual gives in to
  social pressure in his or her public behavior but
  does not actually change private beliefs. ?
• Psychologists believe that people conform because
  they learn to obey authority figures and to
  follow orders and rules.

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109
Chapter Summary 4
Section 3 Conflict and Cooperation

• Aggression is a combination of biological,
  cognitive, personality, and environmental
  factors. ?

• Psychologists have found that the larger the
  crowd or group of bystanders, the more likely any
  given individual is to feel that he or she is not
  responsible for whatever is going on.

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110
Chapter Summary 5
Section 3 Conflict and Cooperation (cont.)

• Social loafing occurs when people allow their
  contributions to the group to slack off because
  they realize that individual contributions are
  not as apparent and easily measured in a group
  setting. ?

• When deindividuation occurs, people lose their
  sense of self and follow group behaviors.

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display the information.
111
End of Chapter Summary
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slide.
112
Chapter Assessment 1
Reviewing Vocabulary
Use the correct term or concept to complete the
following sentences.
1. _______________ occurs when the majoritys
point of view is reinforced and an extreme view
dominates. 2. A behavior that is intended to
cause physical or psychological harm is called
__________. 3. A group with a common __________
shares a set of principles, attitudes, and
defined objectives for which the group
stands. 4. __________ involves any behavior that
an individual engages in because of direct or
indirect group pressure.
Group polarization
aggression
ideology
Conformity
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display the answers.
113
Chapter Assessment 2
Reviewing Vocabulary (cont.)
Use the correct term or concept to complete the
following sentences.
5. The tendency to perform poorly in front of a
group is known as _____________. 6. _____________
occurs when people lose their sense of self and
follow group behaviors. 7. Punching a pillow to
release anger is a form of __________. 8. The
tendency to perform better in the presence of a
group is known as ______________. 9. __________
is behavior in response to orders given by
authorities.
social inhibition
Deindividuation
catharsis
social facilitation
Obediance
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display the answers.
114
Chapter Assessment 3
Reviewing Vocabulary (cont.)
Use the correct term or concept to complete the
following sentences.
10. The _____________ occurs when a person
refrains from taking action because of the
presence of others.
bystander effect
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display the answer.
115
Chapter Assessment 4
Recalling Facts
Using a diagram similar to the one on page 573 of
your textbook, identify the characteristics of a
group.
Characteristics of a group are interdependence,
shared goals, and communication.
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116
Chapter Assessment 5
Recalling Facts
What factors work to hold a group together? What
factors increase the commitment of a person to
the group?
Shared norms, a common ideology, and high
commitment and participation of group members
work to hold a group together. Commitment
increases when the individuals can share in group
decisions and share the rewards and when there is
a requirement of personal sacrifice.
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display the answer.
117
Chapter Assessment 6
Recalling Facts
Why do people conform?
People conform to increase their sense of
belonging to a group and to avoid standing out.
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display the answer.
118
Chapter Assessment 6
Recalling Facts
How does the cognitive theory explain aggression?
The cognitive theory assumes aggression is
learned in childhood by observing and imitating
the behavior of models.
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119
Chapter Assessment 6
Recalling Facts
What are two factors that inhibit individual
action within a group setting?
Diffusion of responsibility and the bystander
effect inhibit individual action within a group
setting. Diffusion of responsibility occurs when
the presence of others lessens an individuals
feelings of responsibility. When a person
refrains from taking action because of the
presence of others, it is known as the bystander
effect.
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display the answer.
120
Chapter Assessment 7
Building Skills
Interpreting a Graph
Milgram was upset about the willingness of his
participants to obey an authority. In later
experiments, he tried to find ways to reduce
obedience. He found that distance between the
teacher and the learner had an effect. The graph
on the next slide shows the percentage of
teachers who obeyed orders at three different
physical distances. Review the graph, then answer
the questions following.
121
Chapter Assessment 7
Building Skills
Interpreting a Graph
122
Chapter Assessment 8
Building Skills
Interpreting a Graph
What percentage of teachers obeyed orders when
they could only hear the learner?
65 percent of teachers obeyed orders when they
could only hear the learner.
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display the answer.
123
Chapter Assessment 9
Building Skills
Interpreting a Graph
What happened to the percentage of teachers who
obeyed orders when they were in the same room and
could see the learner? When they were asked to
touch the learner?
The percentage declined to 40 percent and 30
percent, respectively.
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display the answer.
124
Chapter Assessment 10
Building Skills
Interpreting a Graph
What reasons can you give for the differences in
the percentage of participants obeying authority
in the three physical distances illustrated in
the graph?
The better one knows a person or the closer one
physically is to a person, the less likely one
will be to harm that person. It could be said
that it is easier to harm another when you dont
have to witness the consequences.
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125
Chapter Assessment 11
I have just been hired by a large company that
was once a leader in its markets but has not kept
up with the changes in technology. I have been
told that I have three years to make the company
profitable. What kind of leader do I need to be?
I need to be a transformational leader
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126
End of Chapter Assessment
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