COMPUTER BASED INSRUCTION

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COMPUTER BASED INSRUCTION

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Title: COMPUTER BASED INSRUCTION

1

COMPUTER BASED INSRUCTION
It will be helpful, to start with offering some
definitions of Computer Aided Instruction
( CAI ) and other kinds of learning activities
involving computers.
As Kulik and Bangert ( 1985 ) point out "the
terminology in the area is open to dispute".

The terms used by educators and researchers -
computer-assisted instruction, computer-based
education, computer-based instruction,
computer- enriched instruction, computer-managed
instruction are seem to be very confusing.

3
The following definitions are commonly
accepted(though certainly not the only)

Computer-based education ( CBE) and
computer-based instruction (CBI) are the broadest
terms and can refer to virtually any kind of
computer use in educational settings including
drill and practice, tutorials, simulations,
instructional management,' supplementary
exercises, programming, data base development,
writing using word processors, and other
applications (Banget, 1985 Batey, 1987
Grimes,1977 Samson et. a1.s 1986 and Stennett,
1985 ).

These terms may refer either to stand-alone
computer learning activities or to computer
activities which reinforce material introduced
and taught by teachers.
Computer-assisted instruction ( CA! ) is a
narrower tenn and most often refers to
drill-and-practices tutorial, or simulation
activities offered either by themselves or as
supplements to traditional, teacher directed
instruction.

Computer-managed instruction ( CMI ) can refer
either to the use of computers by school staff to
organize student data and make instructional
decisions or to activities in which
the computer evaluates students' test
performance, guides them to appropriate
instructional resources, and keeps records of
their process.

Computer-enriched instruction ( CEI ) is defined
as learning activities in which computers
(1) generate data at the students' request to
illustrate relationships in models of social and
physical reality.
(2) execute programs developed by the students.
(3) provide general enrichment in relatively
unstructured exercises designed to stimulate and
motivate students.

INTRODUCTION TO CBI
As the computer revolution continues, both
education and training are being increasingly
influenced by the presence of readily available
computer resources.
Following is the rationale behind the use of
Tutorials, Drills, Simulations and Games for
educational purposes.

The first use of computers by educational
institutions coincided approximately with the
introduction of second generation computers at
the end of 1950's.
About this time, larger universities began using
computers for administrative purposes such as
accounting, payroll and record keeping.
At the same time people began using computers
for instructional research.

In the mid-1970's a few smaller computer
companies began experimenting with micro
computers. Unlike large and medium-sized
computers they could be used by one person at
time and were referred to as dedicated computers.
The introduction of these microcomputers ushered
in the microcomputer revolution. Until this time,
projects in CBI were the domain of large projects
that had the funds necessary for expensive
computers.

With the introduction of microcomputers, it
became possible for the individual to buy one and
start using it for educational purposes.
From 1977 to today we have seen phenomenal growth
in the educational uses of computers. All
colleges and universities even elementary and
secondary schools have microcomputers.

The way in which computers are currently used
for instruction are tutorials, drills,
simulations and instructional games.
Tutorials
In the tutorial mode the computer provides new
information and engages the student in a
question-and-answer dialogue about the
information.

In this role, the computer can help the student
discover and integrate information, and route the
tutee to new material or to remedial instruction
depending upon the program's evaluation of the
student's response.

While drill-and-practice software typically
discriminates only right answers from wrong,
tutorials can be built to deal with a wider
variety of response,thereby heightening the
instructional experience.
The major prerequisite for developing a
successful tutorial program is, of course, that
the algorithm for teaching a topic be defined
clearly so that it can be programmed.

Drills
Drill and practice focus on the review or
consolidation of an already acquired knowledge or
skill.
It is therefore particularly applicable in
curricular areas where specific facts need to be
learned or skills developed, such as arithmetic,
spelling, history reading, foreign languages, and
sciences.
The drill-and-practice software format usually
consists of a computer presented problem and a
student entered answer.

Within this general design, a great variety of
methods is used for indicating correct or
incorrect responses, providing hints, branching
students to different problems according to the
correctness of their answers, and grading
performance.
Some software of this type is capable of keeping
detailed records of an individual student's
performance.

Simulations
Simulations are built around models of physical
or social situations.
The model, which necessarily simplifies the
situation being presented, can be organized
either as a pedagogical scenario or as a game
with which the student interacts in order to
accomplish certain goals (e.g., successfully land
a plane, keep a nuclear power plant from
experiencing an accident.

This instructional method can produce exceptional
motivation and interest, and often provides the
only practical, safe, or possible experience with
a given situation.
For example, simulations can present experiments
in genetics or radioactivity which for reasons of
time and/or safety, cannot be conducted by
students in the classroom

Instructional Games
Instructional games provide an appealing
environment in which learners follow prescribed
rules as they try to attain a challenging goal.
It is a highly motivational approach, especially
for tedious and repetitive content.
Games often require learners to use problem
solving skills or demonstrate mastery of specific
content such as math facts and. vocabulary words.

Games include elements of competition or
challenge wherein players compete against
themselves, against other individuals, or against
an objective standard.
Computers are but one element of the
instructional environment, along with teachers
and media. Thus, the computer may serve any
combination of the four phases of instruction
described above.

COMPUTER SOFTWARE
Software, also called a computer program or
simply a program, is a series of instructions
that tells the hardware of a computer what to do
and how to do it.
For example, some instructions direct the
computer to allow you to input data from the
keyboard and store it in memory.
Other instructions cause data stored in memory
to be used in calculations, such as adding a
series of numbers to obtain a total.

Some instructions compare two values stored in
memory and direct the computer to perform
alternative operations based on the results of
the comparison and some instructions direct the
computer to print a report, display information
on the monitor, draw a colour graph on the
monitor, or store information on a disc.

Before a computer can perform or execute a
program the instructions in the program must be
placed, or loaded into the memory of the
computer. Usually, they are loaded into memory
from storage.
For example, a program might be loaded from the
hard disc of a computer into memory for
execution.

When we purchase a program, we will one or more
floppy discs, one or more CD-ROMs, or single
DVD-ROM on which the software is stored.
To use this software, we often must install the
software on the computer's hard disc. Many
programs also may be purchased and downloaded
from internet.

Software can be categorized into two types
system software and application software
SYSTEM SOFTWARE
System software consists of programs that
control the operations of a computer and its
devices.
System software is a connection between a user
and the computer's hardware.

Two types of system software are the
operating system and utility programs.
Operatin2 System
One of the more important programs on a computer,
the operating system contains instructions that
coordinate all of the activities of hardware
devices.
The operating system also contains instructions
that allow you to run application software.

When we start a computer, the computer loads or
copies the operating system into memory from the
hard disc.
He operating system remains in the memory while
the computer runs and allows us to communicate
with the computer and other software.
Many Macintosh computers use a unique operating
system called the Macintosh operating system
(MacOS). Many of today's PC's use a popular
operating system called Microsoft Windows.

Utility Pro2rams
A utility program is a type of system software
that performs a specific task, usually related to
managing a computer, its devices, or its
programs.
An example of a utility program is an
uninstaller, which removes a program previously
installed on a computer.

APPLICA TION SOFTWARE
Application software consist of programs designed
to perform specific tasks for users.
When we think of the different ways people use
computers in their careers or personal lives, we
are thinking of examples of application software.
Educational, business, and scientific computer
programs are all examples of application software.

Popular application software includes word
processing, spreadsheet, database, and
presentation graphics.
Word processing software allows us to create
documents such as letters and reports.
Spreadsheet software allows us to calculate
numbers arranged in rows an columns and create
charts and graphs. Teachers and schools use
spreads he et software for grade-books, lesson
plans, and other school related tasks.

software allows us to store data in an organized
fashion as well as to retrieve' manipulate, and
display that data in a meaningful form.
With presentation graphics software,we can create
electronic slides for use when giving classroom
presentations.
Computer software manufacturers frequently
package these four applications as a single unit,
called a software suite.

software suite contains individual software
applications sold in the same box for a price
that is significantly less than buying the
applications separately.
Many other types of application software exists
that enable users to perform a variety of tasks.

Some widely used software applications include
reference, education, and entertainment desktop
publishing photo and video editing multimedia
authoring network, communications, electronic
mail, and Web browsers accounting school and
student record keeping and personal information
management.
The number and quality of software applications
designed specifically for the K-12 learning
environment have increased dramatically recently.

SOFTWARE SELECTION
The educational potential of technology shows its
effect on the rapid adoption.
Computers and associated devices( e.g.,
videodiscs, digitizing tablets, environmental
probes) make possible educational experiences
that were previously too costly, dangerous, or
otherwise impractical to provide.
These and other influences are forcing educators
to establish computer education programs.

In comparison with other educational programs,
computer education is unusually costly to
implement.
Not only computers must be purchased-a
considerable capital investment in itself-but
funds must be expanded for equipment repair and
maintenance facilities modification, furniture,
sofware, supplementary materials, teacher
training and supplies, among other things.

The total cost of establishing and operating a
computer education program can be daunting, and
hardware is clearly only one element of that cost
(Stecher, 1986).
The high cost of computer education demands that
careful planning and systematic evaluation go
into the development of any new program.
Without careful planning and evaluation, some
very expensive mistakes can be-and have been-made.

When purchasing computers, school personnel all
too frequently do not devote sufficient attention
to software selection.
It is software that makes a computer more or less
useful.
Software can turn a computer into a good or bad
tutor, word processor, information retrieval
device, mailing label generator, or any of a
variety of other devices.
Thus, selection of appropriate software is
crucial to making an investment in hardware pay
off.

The process of selecting instructional materials
for schools is often systematic.
Films, textbooks, worksheets and other
materials, whether chosen by individual teachers
or district committees, are typically selected
with regard to the instructional objectives,
student needs, preferred instructional
approaches, budgets and other factors.

Frequently, during this process criteria are
established, outside opinions are obtained,
product samples are examined.
Since software can turn a computer into an
instructional device, software, too, should be
considered instructional material.
As such, its purchase should be undertaken with
the same care and organization as are purchases
of other instructional media.

SEVEN STEPS TO RESPONSIBLE SOFTWARE SELECTION
Below is an outline of a seven step process for
responsible software selection
1. Analyze Needs.
2. Specify Requirements.
3. Identify Promising Software .
4. Read Relevant Reviews.
5. Preview Software.
6. Make Recommendations .
7. Get Post-Use Feedback.

Step 1 Analyze Needs
The responsible teacher (or materials selection
committee) should first determine whether or not
the computer is the appropriate medium to use to
satisfy particular instructional goals and
objectives.
There is always the possibility that a careful
needs analysis will result in a decision to use
some other teaching-Learning strategy.

Needs Goals
A need is the difference between "where we are
now" (e.g., 60 of the students in the ninth
grade score above minimum competence on the state
science test) and "where we would like to be"
(e.g., 90 of the students in ninth grade score
above minimum competence on the state science
test).
"Where we would like to be" is another way of
defining a goal.

Objectives
An objective describes "where we would like to
be" in more specific terms (e.g., 90 of all
ninth grade students will exceed the minimum
level of competence on the state competency test
administered in the second semester of ninth
grade).
Objectives must include conditions under which
the desired behavior will be demonstrated and the
criteria for measuring that behavior.

Educational objectives help us respond to needs
by breaking them into attainable steps, making it
easier to get from "where we are now" to "where
we would like to be.
"The educational objective stated above is a
"terminal" objective which must be broken down
into a series of "enabling" objectives (e.g., By
October 31, 2003, all the ninth grade students
will be able to correctly identify five out of
seven minerals when shown them by the teacher.)

Enabling objectives identify specifically what
behaviour we would like the student demonstrate.
For each enabling objective, the teacher (or
materials selection committee) should brainstorm
alternative learning methods for achieving that
objective (direct student teacher interaction,
self-instruction workbook, videotape,
computer-assisted instruction, etc.).

After considering the benefits and constraints of
each learning method, the teacher (or materials
selection committee) should be able to make an
informed decision about which medium or
combination of media will satisfy the identified
needs, goals, and objectives.

Step 2 Specify Requirements
If a careful needs analysis determines that
computer-assisted instruction is one of the
methods that will be used to meet identified
instructional objectives, the teacher (or
materials selection committee) should then
specify the requirements for the computer
software.

Factors to consider in specifying requirements
for software include
Compatibility with available hardware.
Cost ( Will the school need multiple copies of
the software?
(Will a site license be necessary?)
User friendliness.
Level of interaction desired.
Adequacy of documentation.
Access to technical support via toll-free
number.
Direct correlation with the instructional
objectives and curriculum requirements identified
in the needs analysis.

Ellsworth and Hedley (1993) suggest that
educators should apply the following criteria
within the context of their objectives and the
students' needs content instructional
presentation demands placed on the learner
technical features and documentation and
management features.

Step 3 Identify Promising Software
If requirements are specified in detail, the
teacher ( or materials selection committee) will
have a good head start when it comes to
identifying promising software.
There are many ways to identify promising
software, and the responsible selector should use
as many of them as possible.
Catalogs still remain an important source for
descriptions of software.

Most district level educational
communications/media centres are on catalogue
mailing lists from virtually all software
producers and wholesalers.
Software is advertised, described, and often
reviewed in magazines and journals found in
school, university, and public libraries.
The Educational Software Selector (TESS), a
database containing descriptions and reviews of
thousands of currently published educational
software programs.

Teachers who have access to the Internet can find
out software from other teachers by joining a
listserv. Posting a question such as, "I am an
eight grade science teacher and I am looking for
interactive software for a PC environment that
will teach my students how to. . . ." is likely
to bring many responses.
The above are the few sources for identifying
promising software.

The more precisely the requirements are specific
in step 2, the easier it will be to screen out
those products that are least likely to meet the
user's.
specifications and easier it will be to focus on
more promising products.

Step 4 Read Relevant Reviews
After a list of promising software has been
identified (using the suggestions outlined in
step 3), the teacher (or materials selections
committee) may be able to narrow or expand the
list by reading relevant software reviews.
It is very important to realize, however, that
reading reviews should not take the place of
previewing, described in step 5.

Software reviews may be found in educational
journals, some of which may be identified by
searching the
ERIC database using appropriate descriptors
( e.g., software, selection, evaluation,
elementary, secondary).
Evaluation services such as EPIE, subscribed to
by many schools and public libraries, provide a
database of selected software evaluations and
reviews.

A visit to the library is an important part of
responsible software selection.
Keep step 1 (Analyze Needs) and step 2 (Specify
Requirements) in mind as we read the reviews.
It is also important to note the audience upon
the review is based.

A software program may have received a poor
review because it was tested with a different
audience than the one we have in mind.
Reviews are more important screening tools when
used as part of the entire selection process.

Step 5 Preview Software
The most effective way to judge whether software
is appropriate or not is to observe students as
they interact with the program.
Are the educational objectives achieved when the
student uses the program? The responsible teacher
should not purchase software without previewing
it with his or her own students.

Preview as many programs as you can find that
appear to meet the selection criteria.
Some software vendors will allow free preview of
an entire program.
Some vendors will provide a free demonstration
disc containing a subset of a larger program.
Some vendors will not allow preview without a
purchase order, but will allow the teacher to
return the program within a specified time limit
with no financial obligation.

In some situations, a teacher may be able to
borrow a program from another teacher for preview
purposes.
As a general rule, if there is no way to preview
software with the students - avoid that software.

Step 6 Make Recommendations
After potential software has been previewed, it
is simple to make recommendations for purchase.
The responsible software selector should h able
to
select the most desirable software after a
systematic evaluation of
all alternatives in terms of educational
objectives and constraints
establish a quantitative method for rating each
alternative against the
selection criteria established in step 2
evaluate the relative importance of each
selection criterion, (Le.,
previewing should probably rated relatively high
in importance)
create a written record outlining the reasons
why a.piece of software
is recommended or not recommended for purchase.

For software that is recommended for purchase,
teachers should include suggestions for optimal
use that might have become apparent during the
preview period.
The written record, including the quantitative
rating scale and the selection criteria, should
be kept on file for future references.

Step 7 Get Post-Use Feedback
After software is purchased and used with
students, it is important for the teacher to
determine the conformance or discrepancy between
all of the enabling objectives specified in Step
1 and the student performance actually obtained
using the chosen computer software.

The teacher should keep records on the relative
extent to which each objective is met or not met
not met .
Objective may be addressed by some other software
program or by another teaching/learning method.
Post-use feedback can get a significant help to a
school's systematic process of software
selection,purchase and use.

The accumulation of user feedback, including
anecdotal experience on the part of both teachers
and students, will naturally serve to improve
future needs analyses (Step 1) and all succeeding
steps in a constantly improving software
selection process.

A very basic evaluation form that can be used as
a general guide for software evaluations for many
software types and target audiences is given in
the Appendix.
While using this form modifications might be
needed depending on the students and topics
intended to teach, as well as the experience and
personal teaching philosophy of the teacher.

MORE ON EV ALUA TING SOFTWARE APPLICATIONS
When you identify a software package that
potentially is suited to the' curriculum needs,
we should evaluate the software for
appropriateness, review the accuracy of the
content, and consider its relevance to the
curriculum standards and goals.
A rubric is a great tool for evaluating software.
A rubric is a detailed assessment tool that
includes a set of evaluation criteria that
specifies the required achievements for each
'level of quality, which usually is identified by
numbers or levels, or by points I earned.

Software evaluation rubrics help us evaluate
educational software.
A software evaluation rubric is an assessment
tool that provides a number of important
evaluation criteria, including content,
documentation and technical support, ability and
academic levels, technical quality, and ease of
use to help assess the quality of software or
other items.

A two page Software Evaluation Rubric is shown in
the next two following pages (Figure 1 and Figure
2 ).
Many schools develop their own software
evaluation rubrics for teachers to use, while in
other schools, teachers create their own software
evaluation rubrics.
The Web is a great resource for locating rubrics.
Many different software evaluation rubrics are
available on the Web for us to use or alter to
fit our specific needs.

Content
When evaluating educational software, content is
the most important area to consider.
When examining software content, we need to
determine if the software is valid.
Valid means the software has well-grounded
instructional properties, meets standards,
provides appropriate content, and teaches what is
intended.

Most software companies and distributors provide
a description of the content and learning skills
addressed for their software packages some
software firms even match the skills the software
teaches with specific curriculum standards and
learning objectives.
When evaluating the contents of a software
application, we should always relate them to our
specific learning standards and curriculum goals.

Documentation and Technical Support
When evaluating software we should also consider
the technical support and documentation the
software offers.
Documentation is any printed or online
information that provides assistance in
installing, using, maintaining, and updating the
software.
We should review the documentation for
readability and depth of coverage.

Technical support is a service that hardware and
software manufacturers and a third party service
companies offer to customers to provide answers
to questions, repairs and other assistance.
Companies usually provide technical support over
the telephone or via Web.
Some firms even provide on-site support.

In addition to receiving the available
documentation and technical support, we should
also determine if any other kinds of support are
available, such as clear easy-to-use aids and
tutorials.
Some software companies, for example, provide
instructor resource guides and lesson plans to
assist integrating their software into curriculum
areas.

Ability Levels
Educators need to evaluate whether the software
can be used with more than one ability or
academic level.
An ability level refers to a student's current
competency level or the skill level he or she can
achieve for a specific learning objective.
The academic level is based on the grade level
with increments to determine if a student is
performing at the appropriate level.

Several software applications, such as math and
reading software adjust the academic level as
students successfully move through specific
skills.
Numerous software applications allow us to set
the academic, or ability levels at which students
are required to work.

Technical Quality and Ease of Use
Technical quality refers to how well the software
presents itself and how well it works. Items to
evaluate are the clarity of the screen design,
appropriateness of feedback and student prompts
and use of graphics, animations, sound, and other
media elements.

Ease of use, or user-friendliness, refers to
anything that makes the software easy to use.
Software should be easy for both teachers and
students to use, while at the same time
maintaining the students' interest.

Student options also play an important role in
successfully integrating new technology. After
the evaluation is completed, we may want to
feedback from students by allowing them to use
and test the software.
If students have difficult time working through
exercises, they may dislike the program and get
frustrated.

If the students dislike the software, they will
not enjoy using it even though they learn.
This dislike will limit the effectiveness of the
software in classroom use.
We must make sure that the software is easy to
use and appropriate for the students grade and
ability level.