Lecture 6: The Reformation

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Lecture 6 The Reformation

• Ann T. Orlando
• April 11, 2007

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Introduction

• Papal Crises in Late Middle Ages
• Martin Luther
• Other reformers
• Calvin
• Anabaptists
• Henry VIII
• Catholic Response
• Ignatius Loyola
• Council of Trent
• 16th Century World-Wide Missionary Activities

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Papal Status as of 1303

• Pope Boniface VIII
• Unam Sanctam encyclical stating Pope is over king
• Philip IV ignores Encyclical
• Captures Boniface and humiliates him
• Boniface dies 1303
• Bonifaces successor
• Tension between Roman families and French over
  who should be Pope
• Clement V was elected through French influence
  and lived in France, beginning of Avignon Papacy

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Avignon Papacy

• During this period (1309-1377), Papacy dependent
  on France
• Some of Popes in this period were guilty of
  nepotism as well as simony
• Catherine of Sienna (1347-1380)
• Mystic who was very popular educated by
  Dominicans
• Able to end warring family factions in Italy
• Pressured Pope Gregory XI to return to Rome,
  which he did in 1377
• Declared a doctor of Church in 1970
• Bridget of Sweden (1303-1373)
• Mother of Queen Catherine of Sweden
• After becoming a widow, moved to Rome, founded an
  order (Brigittines) devoted to poor of Rome and
  politics of returning Pope to Rome

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Great Western Schism

• Urban VI succeeded Gregory XI
• Managed to alienate both French and Romans
• Cardinals who had elected Urban abandoned him and
  elected a new pope, Clement VII who moves back to
  Avignon
• Everyone in Western Europe chooses sides
• France, Scotland back Clement
• England and HRE (Germany and Spain) back Urban
• Italian city states changed sides frequently
• Rival Popes needed funds
• Simony
• Sale of indulgences

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Conciliar Movement

• In 1394 theologians at University of Paris
  suggest a council to elect Pope
• Council gathers at Pisa in 1409, and both Popes
  are asked to resign
• Takes steps against simony
• Elects Alexander V
• Now there are three Popes Rome, Avignon, Pisa
• Another Council at Constance in 1414-1418
• Haec Sancta Council of Bishops pre-eminent over
  Pope
• Elect Martin V, end of Great Schism
• Council of Ferrara-Florence 1438-1445
• Constantinople under threat from Ottoman Turks
  seeks help
• Formula for reunion of East and West
• Leads to enhanced stature of Pope Eugene IV in
  Rome

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Popes of 15th and 16th Centuries

• Pius II (1458-1464) issues Execrabilis, that no
  council is over the Pope, repudiates Council of
  Constance
• Alexander VI (1492-1503), most notorious Borgia
  Pope
• Julius II (1503-1513), leads armies in battle to
  solidify Papal States, decides to rebuild St.
  Peters Basilica
• Old St Peters built by Constantine in very bad
  condition
• What had been largest church in Christendom now a
  mosque
• Leo X (1513-1521), Now that God has given us the
  Papacy, let us enjoy it.
• Popular joke is ROMA Radix Omnia Malorum
  Avaritia (Avarice the Root of All Evil)
• Note, however, that these same Popes were also
  patrons for some of the most important artists of
  Renaissance and Baroque
• These same Popes were champions of learning and
  encouraged establishment of major libraries,
  including Vatican library
• And arguably the worst of them, Alexander VI,
  should be given some measure of redemption for
  declaring that Indians had souls
• Popes in very weakened political situation after
  Avignon papacy reliant on sale of indulgences
  and simony for funds

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Political Situation Early 16th C

• Byzantine Empire destroyed
• Powerful Ottoman Turks in control of Eastern and
  Southern Mediterranean
• Spain newly unified after expulsion of Muslims
• France and England in uneasy truce after Hundred
  Years War
• France and HRE in occasional battles over eastern
  France (or western Germany)
• Strong National Rulers
• Francois I of France
• Charles V HRE (Spain, Germany, Netherlands)
• Henry VII in England

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German Reformation

• How it started 1517, Albrecht of Mainz wants to
  be Archbishop
• Albrecht buys his archbishopric from Rome (Leo
  X) Rome needs the money in part to help pay for
  rebuilding of St. Peters
• Rome authorizes the preaching of a special
  indulgence in Germany, with the money to go to
  Albrecht to repay him
• Martin Luther (1483-1546)
• Responds to this situation with 95 Thesis
• Go far beyond denouncing sin of simony and
  corruption fundamentally calls into question
  Romes primacy and theology of indulgences
  denounces scholasticism
• German princes, especially Fredrick the Wise of
  Saxony, support Luther against Rome and against
  HRE Charles V

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Martin Luther (1483-1546)

• Luther was influenced by humanism studied
  Biblical languages and the early Church Fathers,
  especially Augustine
• Driven by internal and external events
• Internal struggle
• As a young Augustinian monk, Luther struggles to
  appease God for his sins
• Finally realizes that nothing he can do can
  appease God
• Salvation must be Gods free gift that one
  accepts by faith

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Lutheran Theology Three Solas

• Sola Scriptura
• Rejection of philosophical developments
  Scripture is all that one needs
• Scripture should be available to everyone,
  unmediated Luther translates Bible into German,
  although with his own interpretation built into
  it
• Return to original Biblical languages for
  Biblical study reject any OT books not written
  in Hebrew (deutrocanonical books i.e., most
  philosophical books)
• Very important that everyone can read
• Sola Fides
• Faith in Jesus Christ is necessary and sufficient
  for salvation
• Universal priesthood of all believers
• Sola Gratia
• Only Gods grace can save you
• Only two sacraments Baptism and Eucharist
• Accepts Real Presence, but not transubstantiation
  as a way to describe it

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Luther-Erasmus Debates on Free Will

• Replay of Pelagian controversy
• Erasmus writes a book, called On Free Will, like
  Augustine wrote early in his career
• In response Luther writes a book called On
  Bondage of Will, makes points similar to
  Augustine against Pelagius on need for grace,
  predestination
• As in Pelagian controversy, how does one
  interpret Pauls Letter to Romans?

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John Calvin (1509 - 1564)

• Accepted Luthers maxim Sola Scriptura, Sola
  Fides, Sola Gratia) and extended it
• Accepted double predestination (as defined by
  Augustine)
• Rejected real presence in Eucharist
• Established a holy city in Geneva
• Calvinism, had an extensive influence on
  Protestant movement, especially in Scotland
  (Presbyterians), France (Huguenots) and England
  (Puritans)
• Note that all reformers looked to Augustine as
  their patron saint

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Anabaptists (Radical Reform)

• Opposed infant baptism rather baptism should be
  accepted when one accepted faith in Jesus Christ
• Luther was both opposed to them
• Considered themselves completely separate from
  State did not believe that all professing
  Christians were part of Church
• Politically and religiously exclusive thus
  persecuted by all others as a threat to civil
  unity

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Reformation in England

• Henry VIII initially opposes Luther, remains
  faithful to Rome
• Henry married Catherine of Spain in 1509
  (daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, aunt of
  Charles V)
• marriage yields no male heir
• Pope Clement VII refuses to annul marriage
• Note the request comes in 1527, just after
  Charles V had sacked Rome and Clement not eager
  to further provoke Charles
• Henry declares himself head of Church in England
  1532
• Thomas More and other executed 1535
• Very little doctrinal disagreement between Henry
  VIII and Rome

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Religious Map of Europe c. 1560
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Catholic Response Jesuits

• Jesuits (Society of Jesus) founded by Ignatius
  Loyola (1491-1556)
• NOT founded to counter Reformation but charter
  put Jesuits on front lines against Reformers
• Education very important in Jesuit belief
• Jesuits very focused on work among people
• Jesuit life-style in many ways opposite that of a
  monastery

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Key Points of Jesuit Charter (1541)

• Vow not to accept ecclesiastical dignities
• Special relationship to Pope
• Increased probations. The novitiate is prolonged
  from one year to two, with a third year, which
  usually falls after the priesthood. Candidates
  are moreover at first admitted to simple vows
  only, solemn vows coming much later on
• The Society does not keep choir
• It does not have a distinctive religious habit
• It is also said to have been the first order to
  undertake officially and by virtue of its
  constitutions active works such as the following
  
• foreign missions, at the pope's bidding
• the education of youth of all classes
• the instruction of the ignorant and the poor
• ministering to the sick, to prisoners, etc.

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Catholic Response Council of Trent

• Called by Pope Paul III
• Lengthy, intermittent (1545-1563)
• Pope initially reluctant to call council because
  of bad experiences with councils (especially
  Council of Constance) in 15th C
• Purpose was both to address reform of practice
  and to uphold Catholic doctrine
• Developed in several sessions
• Jesuits play a major theological role at Trent
  encouraged explicit statement of Catholic
  doctrine in opposition to Protestant views

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Key Theological Statements from Trent

• Scripture and tradition
• Sacraments are effect through performance of
  sacramental action, ex opere operato
• Affirmed Mass as sacrifice and transubstantiation
  
• Affirmed 7 sacraments
• Good works together with faith brings about
  salvation
• Affirmed indulgences and intercession of saints

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Revived Catholic Spirituality

• Teresa of Avila 1515-1582
• Pioneered major reforms of monastic orders (male
  and female)
• Special relationship with John of Cross
• Encouraged renewed devotion of Catholics in
  opposition to Protestants
• First woman declared a doctor of Church (1970)
• John of Cross 1542-1591
• Follower of Theresa of Avila
• Mystic and writer of popular devotional works
• Francis de Sales 1567-1622
• Educated by Jesuits
• Argued against Calvinists bishop in absentia of
  Geneva
• Wrote popular devotional works On Devout Life
  very influential

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Expansion of Spanish and Portuguese Culture 16th C

• Voyages of discovery
• Driven by economics
• Religion followed economics
• Jesuits and Franciscans were primary Catholic
  missionary orders
• Many saw colonization of new world (Western
  Hemisphere) as a way to escape turmoil of old
  world