AP EXAM

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AP EXAM

• More and more and more Review
• Part 3
• Understanding and managing living systems

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Biodiversity

• Is the variation of organisms in a given area
• Includes
• Species diversity
• Number of different species in an area
• Includes species richness ( of species in an
  area)
• And Species evenness (relative distribution of
  the different species in an area)
• Genetic diversity
• The genetic variety within a species
• Ecosystem diversity
• Which is the complexity of species interactions
  in biological communities

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Species

• Is a group of similar looking organisms that can
  interbreed and produce fertile offspring
• Or defining species based on genetic studies and
  evolutionary branches
• Molecular biology allows scientist to analyze DNA
  to test relationships between organisms
• Is the Red Wolf endangered from low numbers or
  b/c its a hybrid from a gray wolf and a coyote
• Mitochondrial DNA indicates that it is a hybrid,
  but from how long ago?
• USFWS has listed it as endangered

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Biodiversity Hot Spots

• Concentrated around tropical regions
• Are areas that have 1,500 endemic (native)
  species and have lost 70 percent of their habitat
  due to habitat disruption and invasion of exotic
  species
• 34 hot spots have 1.4 of the worlds area but
  75 of the worlds threatened mammals, birds, and
  amphibians
• Tend to be islands Madagascar, Indonesia,
  Philippines
• Geographic isolation results in highly unique
  flora and fauna

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Benefits of Biodiversity

• Utilitarian benefits primitive societies used
  wild plants and animals to provide clothing,
  food and shelter. Nearly all is now cultivated
• Ecological benefits
• plants function in carbon cycle
• animals help pollinate
• soil formation, pest control, waste disposal and
  water purification are all dependent upon the
  species that make up the earth
• Nature has aesthetic value

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Extinction

• Is the elimination of an entire species when the
  last of its members have died
• It is irreversible process
• It is perfectly natural process, as species
  become less suited over time to changes in the
  environment
• Species arise through mutation and natural
  selection, so those not as fit become extinct
  through the same processes
• Background extinction rate is the natural reae of
  extinction
• Mass extinctions have occurred periodically,
  followed by radiation and rapid evolution of
  species
• Humans are currently accelerating extinctions by
  damaging habitats
• Current extinction rates are from 100-1,000 times
  background extinction levels
• Primary threats to biodiversity are habitat
  disruption, invasive species, pollution,
  population, and overharvesting

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Habitat Disruption

• TWO main reasons
• Agriculture
• for crops or livestock
• Timber cutting
• Provides firewood, charcoal, lumber, and pulp
• Also disruption for construction and commercial
  development
• Humans drain wetlands and flood other areas with
  water diversion projects
• Mining disrupts significant amounts of habitat

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Exotic Species

• Considered biotic pollution
• An introduction of a non-native species into an
  area where it is not natural
• May be accidental (Zebra mussels via ballast
  water)
• Or deliberate introduced (melaleuca and
  Australian pine in South Florida to protect
  canals, levees, and other areas from erosion)
• Considered invasive due to lack of controls on
  population growth in the new area
• Tropical areas with high tourism and ports are
  most susceptible
• Islands are extremely vulnerable b/c of
  uniqueness

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Solutions to Exotic Species

• All solutions can be expensive and time consuming
• Mechanical control invasive is physically
  removed
• Biological control where you introduce a
  predator or parasite is introduced to control the
  pest
• Ecological control fire kills exotics and allows
  fire resistant natives to regenerate

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Pollution

• Humans pollute air, water, and soil on a regular
  basis
• Pesticides, PCBs, dioxins, mercury and lead
• Water pollutants include sediment, organic waste
  and nitrates and phosphates
• Regional problem of acid deposition and global
  warming are having adverse effects on a wide
  variety of ecosystems throughout the world

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Human Population

• The ever-increasing human population affects
  biodiverstiy as humans are forced to move into
  previously uninhabited areas.
• To support the huge population, we must harvest
  more timber, raise more grain and lievestock,
  harvest more fish, and mine for more nonrenewable
  resources than ever before in the history of
  humans

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Overharvesting

• Has lead to the endangerment and extinction of
  numerous species in the world
• American passenger pigeon became extinct in 1914
  b/c they were commercially hunted and their food
  supply swindled as they lost habitat due to
  deforestation
• American bison were killed in the American west
  in a genocide attempt to destroy Native American
  populations dependent upon the bison for their
  livelihood
• Shark, bluefin tuna, and marlin are under severe
  pressure from overfishing
• Animals harvested in the wild for the pet trade,
  zoos, research labs and aquaria

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Endangered and Threatened Species

• Endangered Species Act
• Defines endangered species as being in imminent
  danger of extinction throughout all or most of
  its range
• California condor, whooping crane, giant panda
  and black rhinoceros
• Threatened species is one that is likely to
  become endangered in the near future, throughout
  all or a significant portion of its range
• Bald eagle, grizzly bear and the American
  Alligator

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Characteristics of Endangered Species

• Occupy a narrow habitat or occupy a small range
• Therefore, altering their habitat has greater
  risk
• Narrow habitat reiterates that species that are
  native to certain islands are more likely to be
  threatened
• Animals that require a large territory, such as
  predators, are likely to become extinct if their
  territory is modified by humans
• Animals with low reproductive success, low
  reproductive rates, or small numbers of offspring
  per gestation are at risk
• Animals that have highly specialize feeding
  habitats
• Animals wit large size b/c they require more
  space to supply food needs
• Grizzly bears need large area to maintain Minimum
  Viable Population (MVPs)

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LEGISLATION

• By end of 1800s, states had hunting and fishing
  laws
• 1900 Lacey Act required a federal permit to
  transport live, dead, or parts of wild animals
  across state lines
• 1973 Endangered Species Act
• Disproportionate amount of money spent on
  charismatic creatures
• Funding based on emotion not biological impact
• Ignore role of keystone and indicator species
• Flagship species get attention (manatee and
  panda)
• Opponents argue that economic impacts are not
  considered before listing

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More Legislation

• 1996 Sustainable Fisheries Act
• Amended the Magnuson Fishery Conservation and
  Management Act of 1976
• Federal government to manage fisheries from 3 to
  200 miles off US coast.
• Can impose limits on fish taken in this area
• Revisions have NMFS implement management and
  conservation plans
• Now manage Atlantic sharks, swordfish, bill fish
  and bluefin tuna

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More Legislation

• 1975 CITES Convention on international Trade in
  Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna
• Goal to ensure trade of species does not lead to
  their extinction
• Bans hunting, capturing and selling of endangered
  or threatened species
• Appendix 1 trade prohibited on endangered
  species
• Appendix 2 limited trade on threatened species
• Appendix 3 assists in species protected in one
  country

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Species Survival Plans

• Ex situ conservation Animals are taken from
  nature into captivity in zoos and bred in the
  attempt to increase numbers
• Determine what brought species to brink of
  extinction before reintroducing to wild
• Successful breeding programs for black-footed
  ferret and whooping crane
• Captive breeding techniques used to increase
  genetic diversity
• Artificial insemination transfer of sperm w/o
  intercourse
• Cross incubation bird of one species hatches
  anothers egg
• Embryo transfer production of numerous amounts
  of eggs in a viable female with the use of
  hormones eggs are harvested and fertilized in
  vitro embryos are transplanted to less desirable
  genetic stock
• Artificial incubation harvests eggs in nature
  and rearing the offspring to a viable size in
  captivity to return to nature
• Botanical Gardens serve the same purpose for
  assisting with the recovery of plant species
• Important to set aside habitat for critically
  endangered species in the wild to maintain as
  much genetic diversity as possible
• Protection from poaching is essential

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World Land Use

• Forest and Woodland 29
• Range and Pasture 27
• Cropland 11
• Other 11
• Cities, arid land that will not support
  agriculture or grazing, and wetlands

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Forests

• Closed canopy forests are those that have tree
  crowns that cover 20 or more of the ground
• Open canopy cover less than 20
• Old growth forests had little human intervention
• Trees can live entire lifespan
• Coast redwoods can live thousands of years and
  reach 300 ft tall
• Temperate deciduous forest or southern pine can
  live 300-400 years
• Largest remaining old growth is boreal in Russia,
  Canada and tropical forests in Brazil and Oceania

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Utilitarian Forest Use

• Used for lumber, wood pulp
• In U.S. mainly from trees managed for sustainable
  yield
• Developing countries harvest for fuelwood and to
  make charcoal 50 worldwide
• Developing countries sell exotic tropical
  hardwoods (mahogany and teak)
• Harvested from virgin old growth at an
  unsustainable rate
• Forests are damaged due to mining
• Clear cut for rangeland