Title: Western Civilization I HIS-101
1Western Civilization IHIS-101
- UNIT 1 Origins of Western Civilizations
(Prehistory to 1700 BCE)
2Stone Age Background
- Pre-History started roughly 3-4 million years
ago - Early man and archeological evidence
- Tool-making hominids appear about 2 million years
ago - Paleolithic Period (c. 2.5 million years ago -
8,000 BCE) - Heidelberg Man (600,000-400,000 years ago)
- Deliberately buried their dead
- Neanderthal Man (30,000-200,000 years ago)
- Possibility of abstract thought
- Upper Paleolithic Age (c. 40,000 -11,000BCE)
- Homo sapiens sapiens
- Finely crafted tools
- Cave paintings at Lascaux
3- Paleolithic Cave Painting at Lascaux
4Upper Paleolithic Age
- Period of the Ice Age
- Temperatures in the Mediterranean averaged around
60F in the summer and 30F in the winter - There was a jump in human advancement
- Sophisticated figurative artwork
- Evidence of religious beliefs
- More effective tools like fish hooks, sewing
needles, and arrowheads - Humans lived in hunter-gatherer societies
- Small bands of people, constantly moving in
search of food
5Paleolithic or Old Stone Age
- Characteristics of hunter-gatherer societies
- They lacked material wealth
- There were no societal hierarchies
- All were hunters and gatherers
- Internal struggles would lead to fragmentation
- There was a lack of specialization
- By the end of the Ice Age, the larger game herds
left the Near East region - The warmer, wetter conditions were ideal for wild
grains to grow
6Neolithic or New Stone Age
- Neolithic Period (11,000 to 4,000 BCE)
- Intense social and technological development
- Development of managed food production
(agriculture) - Included the domestication of plants and animals
- Gradual process with revolutionary consequences
- In the west, it started in the Fertile Crescent
- Surplus food and storage
- This lead to an increase in population
- Also lead to development of animal domestication
7Neolithic or New Stone Age
- Beginning of permanent and semi-permanent
settlements - This led to the rise of villages and small cities
- This helped to stabilize society
- There was the rapid intensification of trade
- Exchange of commodities and new ideas
- Increase in wealth
- Social stratification
- Rise of a new class of social elites
- There was also the rise of specialization
- Included the rise of priestly class
8- Neolithic cutlery and foodstuffs found in
Switzerland
9Civilization
- Civilization
- A complex culture in which large numbers of human
beings share a number of common elements - Emerged between 6,500 to 3,000 BCE
- Historians disagree as to why it came about
- Developed independently in Mesopotamia, Egypt,
India, and China - Challenge and Response theory
- Challenges forced human beings to make the
necessary efforts that led to the rise of
civilization - This could be due to material forces surpluses
such as food - Or it could be due to non-material forces such as
religion
10Civilization
- Characteristics of civilization
- Development of agricultural skills
- Rise of specialization
- A division of labor
- Urban revolution
- New political structures including government
bureaucracies and militaries - Distinct religious structures
- Advanced technical skills were developed,
including the use of bronze tools - Complex economies, including long-distance trade
- New social structures based on economic power
- Development of writing
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12Civilization in Mesopotamia
- Located in the Tigris and Euphrates river valleys
- Desert region
- River flood enriches the soil near the rivers
- Flooding was very unpredictable
- Development of irrigation systems
- Governments were theocracies
- Priests and priestesses had great power
- Temples owned much of the city land and livestock
- Over time, they had to share their power with
kings - The kings received their power from the gods and
they were seen as agents of the gods
13Civilization in Mesopotamia
- Economy was primarily agricultural
- Industry and commerce rose in importance as well
- Foreign trade was primarily a royal monopoly
- Traded such goods as wool, barley, wheat, copper,
tin, aromatic woods, fruit trees - Mesopotamian society was broken into three
classes - Nobles
- This included royal and priestly officials and
their families - Commoners (free citizens)
- 90 of population were farmers
- Slaves
- The richest people tended to own the most and
talented slaves
14 15Sumerians (c. 6000 to 2500 BCE)
- The Sumerians inhabited southern Mesopotamia
- Ubaid Period (5900-4300 BCE)
- Sophisticated irrigation systems
- Intense temple-building
- Development of a religious structure
- Included the rise of a priestly class
- Priests were responsible for managing economic
resources - Uruk Period (4300-2900 BCE)
- The first city-states start to develop
- Temple building more prominent and elaborate
- Writing also developed during this period
16- Sumerian clay ball with tokens
17Development of Writing
- Token and ball system
- Objects would be represented with clay tokens
- Would then be used in a transaction
- This was later replaced with writing on clay
tablets - Pictographs
- Earliest writing systems
- Symbols that resembled the physical object they
represented - Evolved into representing ideas as well as
objects - Eventually represented a particular phonetic
sound
18Development of Writing
- Cuneiform (c. 3100 BCE)
- Abstract writing
- Used a durable reed stylus
- Cuneus Wedge shaped impression in clay
- Symbols became more and more abstract
- Used for every possible consonant-vowel
combination - It was difficult to master and took years to
learn - Houses of the Tablet
19 20- Cuneiform tablet
- c. 2300 BCE
21Early Dynastic Period (2900-2350 BCE)
- Period of constant warfare between the
city-states - Cities grew in size from 10,000 to over 50,000
people - This made competition for resources more intense
- Rise of war leaders (lugals)
- Held the status of king
- Acted as both secular and religious figures
- They led the armies of their gods into battle
- It was important to them to remain in their gods
favor - Replaced the priests as the leaders of the
communities - Because of constant warfare, no one lugal became
dominant
22- Statue of a man worshiping
- Early Dynastic Period (c.2750-2600BCE)
23Sumerian Religion
- Religion played a major role in the Sumerian
city-states - Sumerian pantheon included around 1,500 gods
- Each city felt that their city was the property
of one particular god or goddess - Therefore, they sought to glorify by exalting
their own city - The physical environment had a major impact on
how the Sumerians viewed the world - Massive floods, heavy downpours, oppressive
humidity, and scorching winds - Suffered from the famines that resulted from
these disasters - According to Sumerian myth, humans were created
to do the manual labor the gods were unwilling to
do themselves
24Sumerian Religion
- They were afraid of being punished by the gods if
they did not worship and praise them enough - They sought to appeaseor not be punished bythe
gods - Performed rituals and sacrifices
- Land of No Return
- Development of divination
- They wanted to discover what the gods were going
to do - Believed the gods would give some sort of sign or
omen - Rituals and prayers were developed to influence
the gods and ward off demons - However, the only people who knew these rituals
and prayers were the priests
25Sumerian Technology and Trade
- They learned how to smelt tin and copper into
bronze which ushered in the Bronze Age (c. 3000
BCE) - They used the wheel for transport
- Oldest known wheel in Mesopotamia dated to c.
3,500 BCE - Were used for two-wheel chariots and four-wheel
carts - Development of math system
- Based on 60, using combinations of 6 and 10 for
practical solutions - Used multiplication and division and created
tables for the computation of interest - Geometry was used for building domes and arches
26Sumerian Technology and Trade
- The Sumerians developed astronomy
- They charted the chief constellations
- Development of a lunar calendar
- Had 354 days based on a 12 month lunar year
- An extra month was added to bring it into sync
with the solar year - They also developed a complex trade system
- They traded for raw materials that they did not
possess - They built trade routes throughout the
Mesopotamian region - Expanded to the Persian Gulf and the
Mediterranean
27- Akkadian Empire
- c. 2300 BCE
28Akkadian Empire (2350-2160 BCE)
- Akkadians
- From Mesopotamia but north of Sumer
- They had been influenced by the Sumerians
- Shared similar cultures but each retained their
own language - Sumerians considered the Akkadians to be
outsiders and barbarians - Sargon (c. 2334-2279 BCE)
- The leader of the Akkadians
- According to legend, as a baby a gardener found
him floating down a river in a basket
29- Bust believed to be of Sargon of Akkad
30Akkadian Empire (2350-2160 BCE)
- Sargon was best known for being the first person
to unify the Sumerian city-states - He did this by conquering them and adding them to
his own empire - He established a new dynastic empire
- Included Mesopotamia to the Mediterranean
- Placed fellow Akkadians in power as governors of
the cities - Exploited the already developed trade routes to
strengthen the base of his empire - His economic influence stretched as far away as
Ethiopia and India
31Akkadian Empire (2350-2160 BCE)
- Naram-Sin (2255 2219 BCE)
- He continued the expansion of the empire
- He was a promoter of culture and a patron of the
arts - He also claimed to be the god of Agade (Akkad)
- He was followed by a group of three weak
successors who were unable to preserve the empire - The reasons why the Akkadians were successful
- Shared almost everything with the Sumerians
except language - Respected the Sumerian religion and gods
- Were able to create a unified government where
the Sumerians were unable to
32- Naram-Sins victory stele (Louvre)
33Third Dynasty of Ur (c. 2100-1900 BCE)
- Ur-Nammu of Ur (2047-2030 BCE)
- Modeled his kingship on Sargon and Naram-Sin
- Pursued military conquests and centralizing the
government - Code of Ur-Nammu
- Earliest legal code
- Required the payment of fines for most crimes
- Shulgi (2029-1982 BCE)
- He continued the successful empire
- Built the Great Ziggurat of Ur
- Ibbi-Sin (1963-1940 BCE)
- He was too weak to rule
- This marked the decline of the Ur dynasty
34- Reconstructed façade for the Great Ziggurat of Ur
35Third Dynasty of Ur (2100-2000 BCE)
- Sumerian Renaissance
- The Ur dynasty brought about a renaissance in
culture - However, this did not have a lasting effect on
the region - Other groups would have more of an influence in
the region over the next 1,500 years - The Epic of Gilgamesh (c. 2000 BCE)
- Earliest known piece of literature
- It was based on a series of poems written
- Gilgamesh was the legendary king of Uruk (c. 2700
BCE) - Tales about military conquest and heroism
- Gilgamesh v. Enkidu city v. wilderness
- Pessimistic toward natural environment
36 37Old Babylonian Empire (c. 1900-1595 BCE)
- Babylon was a small city-state in central
Mesopotamia - It was controlled by the Amorites
- Location between rivers gave it great economic
and military significance - Also between two powerful Amorite cities
- Hammurabi (1792-1750 BCE)
- He was the sixth king of Babylon
- One of the first rulers to conquer through
diplomacy rather than sheer force - Part of his strategy was through diplomacy and
writing
38- Hammurabi
- (1792-1750 BCE)
39Old Babylonian Empire (c. 1900-1595 BCE)
- Hammurabi organized all of Babylonia under Marduk
- Marduk was the god of Babylon
- Still respected the other gods but Marduk was the
dominant god of the empire - Used Marduks supremacy over the other gods as
his justification to rule - Code of Hammurabi
- A collection of laws used throughout his empire
- Contained 282 laws which regulated peoples
relationships throughout Mesopotamia - Based on actual rulings handed down by Hammurabi
40 41The Code of Hammurabi
- The Code was probably never intended to be a code
of laws in the modern sense - Was used as propaganda to publicize the kings
devotion to justice - It reveals a society with strict justice
- Lists three classes the elite, the masses, and
slaves - Penalties were severe but they were adjusted
based on the social class of the parties involved - Reflected issues and responsibilities the
government had to deal with - This included slavery, land tenure, commerce,
consumer protection, and marriage
42The Code of Hammurabi
- Punishments for crimes varied according to ones
social class - Crimes against the upper class were punished more
severely - Crimes against the lower class were punished more
leniently - Old Babylonian Society
- Upper class nobles controlled large estates and
wealth - Below the nobles, an enormous class of legally
free individuals - Dependents of the palace or temple
- Laborers, artisans, small merchants, farmers and
officials - At the bottom were the slaves
- In general, the slaves were treated harshly
- Slaves acquired through trade or captured in war
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44Development of Civilization in Egypt
- The Nile River was of central importance to
Egyptian civilization - Annual flooding of the Nile created miles of
fertile land for growing crops - Egyptian civilization developed along very
different lines than Mesopotamia - Annual flooding of the Nile was predictable
- Land around the Nile did not require extensive
irrigation - State intervention was not necessary for food
production so the villages remained small and
rural
45Development of Civilization in Egypt
- Nile River valley was protected by natural
barriers - Desert to the east and west
- Rapids (cataracts) to the south
- Gave a sense of isolation and security
- Still had access to the Mediterranean to the
north so they were not any trade barriers for
Egyptians - The Nile became the unifying factor for Egypt
- The fastest way to travel throughout the land
- Made transportation and communication much easier
- Because of the stability and reliability of the
Nile, the Egyptians had a sense of security and
changelessness
46- Figurine of a woman from predynastic Egypt
- c.3500-3400BCE
47Predynastic Egypt (10,000 3100 BCE)
- The period prior to the emergence of the pharaohs
- Agriculture did not emerge until 5,000 BCE
- The Nile valley region was able to supply an
abundance of food for long periods of time - Increased population
- The first cities appeared in Upper Egypt around
3,200 BCE, all near the Nile - Sophisticated fortifications
- Elaborate temples
- Attracted industry and travelers
- High degrees of social specialization
- Rivalry developed between Upper and Lower Egypt
48- Narmer Palette
- c. 3100 BCE
49Organization of Egyptian History
- Manetho (c. 3rd century BCE)
- Set the basic framework for Egyptian history
- In his Aegyptiaca, he divided the rulers by
dynasties - Today, Egyptian history is divided into three
major periods - Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms
- These were periods were each marked with
- Long-term stability with strong monarchical
authority and competent administrations - Construction of temples and pyramids
- Freedom from invasion
- Intellectual and cultural activities
- Between the periods are Intermediate Periods
- Characterized by political chaos, rivalries, and
invasions
50Archaic Period (3100c. 2686 BCE)
- By c. 3100 BCE, Upper and Lower Egypt were
unified by King Narmer - Started the first dynasty
- Archaic Period is characterized by
- Administrative capital at Memphis (Lower Egypt)
- First dynastic rulers came into being
- Pharaohs were considered divine, not just
received divine favor - Earliest rulers were seen as the earthly
manifestation of Horus, the falcon god - Development of hieroglyphics
- These were priest-carvings or sacred writings
developed during the first two dynasties - They were pictographs that had a sacred value
51Archaic Period (3100c. 2686 BCE)
- Hieroglyphics were only used by the royal family
and the priest class - A more simple, faster, cursive script (Hieratic
Script ) was used for everyday business of
government and commerce - First writings were carved in stone
- Later the Egyptians made paper out of papyrus
reed - The first uses of papyrus came during the First
Dynasty - The ability to translate hieroglyphics came about
with the discovery of the Rosetta Stone in 1799 - It contained three different forms of writing
hieroglyphs, demotic, and classical Greek
52 53- Close up of the hieroglyphics
54Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BCE)
- Includes the 3rd through 6th Dynasties
- Unable to reconstruct an accurate history of this
period - So few documents exist to piece together a
complete history - Pharaohs were viewed as gods and were absolute
rulers - However, the pharaoh was required to follow the
Maat - This was a general concept of morality, law, and
justice - Pharaohs were divine instruments that were to
maintain order and harmony - Subjects were to obey the king to help keep the
cosmic order
55Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BCE)
- Pharaohs had a well-developed bureaucracy to help
them run the empire - During this period, pharaohs were involved more
in religious matters than political ones - A vizier was in charge of administration
- This included justice, public works, police, etc.
- The pharaohs also appointed provincial governors
- They were known as nomarchs
- Tended to be family members of the pharaoh
- Pharaoh had to keep tight reins on them to keep
them from establishing a power base in their
provinces (nomes)
56Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BCE)
- An age of prosperity and splendor
- This is illustrated by the building of the great
pyramids - The pyramids were built as part of a city of the
dead - It included a large pyramid for the pharaoh
- Smaller pyramids for his family
- Contained all the articles a person would need
for the after-life - Included furniture, weapons, and food
- The original pyramids began as mastabas
- These were rectangular structures with flat roofs
that served as tombs
57 58Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BCE)
- Why did the Egyptians build such elaborate tombs?
- The Egyptians believed that people had two
bodies a physical one and a spiritual one (ka) - By preserving the body through mummification, the
ka could return to it - The tomb was furnished with goods from everyday
life to help the ka resume its life after death - Mummification was a process of slowly drying out
and preserving a body to prevent it from rotting - The Egyptians first used mummification c. 3000
BCE - It was not perfected until the New Kingdom
59Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BCE)
- Process of mummification
- First the intestines, stomach, lungs, and liver
would be removed and placed in a special jar
(canopic jars) - The heart would remain inside the body because
that was needed for the weighing of the heart - The brain was then removed through the nose with
a special tool - Salt would be placed on the body to absorb
moisture - The body would then be filled with spices and
wrapped in layers of resin-soaked linen - The whole process from start to finish would take
approximately 70 days - Mummification of pharaohs and their queens
usually took the longest
60 61Step Pyramid
- The Step Pyramid was built during the 3rd Dynasty
during the reign of King Djoser (c. 2630 BCE) - It was designed by Imhotep, a priest of
Heliopolis - He probably designed it by building one mastaba
on top of another - The first real pyramid was built during the 4th
Dynasty (c. 2600 BCE) - Each side was filled in to make a flat sloped
surface - Built during the reign of King Snefru
- He went on to build a total of three pyramids
62 63Great Pyramid at Giza
- This was built c. 2540 BC by King Snefrus son,
King Khufu - Contains three pyramids
- Covers a total of 13 acres
- Great Pyramid is 756 feet on each side of its
base and stands 481 feet high - Its four sides are almost precisely oriented to
each of the four points of the compass - Recent research suggests that small groups of
skilled workers were used in the construction - In the case of the Great Pyramid, between 20,000
to 30,000 people were used and it took
approximately 20 years to build - Number of workers were reduced during the growing
season
64- What the Great Pyramid would have looked like
65Ancient Egyptian Society
- Four social classes
- Pharaoh or god-king
- Upper Class
- Nobles and priests
- Middle Class
- Merchants, artisans, and craftspeople
- Peasants
- Largest percentage of the population
- They worked the kings lands, and building
projects, paid taxes in the forms of crops, and
provided military service - Slaves
- Typically captives of foreign wars but they did
have legal rights, including the right to own
personal property
66 67Egyptian Religion
- Egyptian religion was polytheistic
- They had over 150 gods in their pantheon
- Henotheistic Worshipped mainly one god but
recognize many others - One of the most important deities was Osiris
- Egyptians believed that Osiris was the one who
brought civilization to Egypt - According to the myth, Osiris was killed by his
brother Seth, who then cut his body into 14
pieces and threw those into the Nile - Isis, his wife, found the pieces and restored him
to life
68Egyptian Religion
- Because of this, Osiris became a symbol of
resurrection and the judge of the dead in
Egyptian religion - When a person was died, he was mummified and
given the name Osiris so he could be reborn - Celebrations were held each year for the flooding
of the Nile to symbolize Isis gathering Osiris
parts and the start of new life - The Egyptians did not have a negative view of the
afterlife like the Mesopotamians had - They saw death as a necessary step to the
afterlife - They believed the afterlife was to be better than
their current lives
69Egyptian Religion
- The Egyptians a positive viewpoint not only of
the afterlife, but their current lives as well - They believed they lived in a stable,
paradise-like universe, governed by the Maat - They were connected to their gods through their
pharaoh - Elaborate rituals took place when a death
occurred - This included embalming and mummification as well
as burying items with the deceased - A Book of the Dead was also buried with the
corpse - It contained information that the deceased would
need to know for the afterlife - This included spells, incantations, and
preparations for the ultimate test the weighing
of the heart
70Egyptian Religion
- Weighing of the Heart
- When a person died, he met with Osiris and other
deities to weigh his heart against a feather - The feather itself represented the Maat
- The heart would be weighed by Anubis, the god of
the dead and mummification - If it was balanced, the deceased could move on
- If the heart was too heavy, Ammut (Devourer of
the Dead) was there to eat the deceased
71- Weighing of the heart from the Book of the Dead
72Old Kingdom Science and Technology
- Astronomy was based on the sun
- Their solar calendar was more accurate than the
Mesopotamians lunar one - It was later adopted by Julius Caesar
- Developed irrigation and water control systems
- Did not develop the wheel until much later
- This was because of the number of workers
available so there was no need for it - There was no written legal code
- Whatever the pharaoh proclaimed was law
73End of the Old Kingdom
- Several problems led to the end of the Old
Kingdom - Period of the 5th and 6th Dynasties
- During this time, nomarchs grew in power
- Part of this was due to their positions becoming
hereditary - The nomes became more independent and the central
authority of the pharaoh weakened - Peoples loyalty switch from the pharaohs to the
nomarchs - Egypt also was plagued with famines at this time
- Low Nile flooding led to crop failures and
economic decline - People blamed the pharaoh for disrupting the Maat
74End of the Old Kingdom
- Because of all of these problems, the priesthood
of Ra at Nekhen demoted the pharaohs - They were transformed from being an incarnation
of Horus and Ra to the lowly position of being
the son of a god - This was done in order to wrest power away from
weaker pharaohs - The nomarchs then used the situation to seize
control - Many saw them and priests as the only ones who
could guarantee stability and order
75First Intermediate Period (2160-2055 BC)
- Included the 7th through 11th Dynasties
- During this period, a unified country no longer
existed - Divided into Upper and Lower Egypt
- Rival dynasties were created with new centers of
power - Thebes in Upper Egypt
- Henen-nesut in Lower Egypt
- It was not until 2055 BC that Egypt was reunified
- King Mentuhotep, King of Thebes (Upper Egypt),
defeated the rulers of Lower Egypt and then
declared that he was ruler of all Egypt - His reign marks the beginning of the Middle
Kingdom
76- Stele of Amenemhat I (c. 1938 BCE)
77Middle Kingdom (c. 2050-c. 1650 BCE)
- The Middle Kingdom period contained the 11th
through 13th dynasties - The 12th Dynasty (1991-1802 BCE) was the dominant
dynasty during this period - This was considered the golden age for Egypt
- During this time, nomes were restructured
- They were given permanent boundaries and the
position of nomarch was officially made
hereditary - On the other hand, the nomarchs were required to
know what their duties were and perform them
accordingly
78Middle Kingdom (c. 2050-c. 1650 BCE)
- This was also a period of expansionism
- Egyptian forces conquered parts of Nubia to the
south and built fortresses to protect its new
borders - They started expeditions into Palestine and Syria
- Pharaohs began embracing the idea of a co-regency
- It was first set up by Amenemhet I (1991-1962
BCE) - He made his son as a co-ruler to prepare him for
his future position - This was designed to prevent any succession
problems or inept rulers - He was killed by the royal bodyguards in 1962 BCE
79Middle Kingdom (c. 2050-c. 1650 BCE)
- Egypt became more cynical during this period
- There was a change in the perception of the
pharaoh - The pharaohs were no longer seen as inaccessible
god-kings who were higher than the people - Having maat was not enough
- Pharaoh had to protect his people, he was seen as
a shepherd to protect his flock - Pharaohs no longer trusted those around them
- After the assassination of Amenemhat, even the
pharaohs became cynical - They began writing letters to their successors
warning them of the constant threats and not to
expect any loyalty from the people