What is World View? (Sue

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What is World View? (Sue Sue, 1990)

• we can define a world view as how a person
  perceives his/her relationship to the world
  (nature, institutions, other people, etc.).
• World views are highly correlated with a person's
  cultural upbringing and life experiences

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• Ivey, Ivey, and Simek-Downing (1987) refer to
  world views as "one's conceptual framework," or
  "how you think the world works." Ibrahim (1985)
  refers to it as "our philosophy of life," or our
  "experience within social, cultural,
  environmental, philosophical, and psychological
  dimensions."
• Put in a much more practical way, world views are
  not only composed of our attitudes, values,
  opinions, and concepts, but also they may affect
  how we think, make decisions, behave, and define
  events.

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What is the importance of understanding world
view?

• Counselors who hold a world view different from
  that of their clients and are unaware of the
  basis for this difference are most likely to
  impute negative traits to clients.
• Constructs used to judge "normality" and
  "healthy" or "abnormality" and "unhealthy" may be
  inadvertently applied to clients.
• In most cases, culturally different clients have
  a greater possibility of holding world views
  different from those of counselors.

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Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck model (1961) of World
View

• Time Is the orientation based on the past,
  present, or the future?
• Human relations Are individuals, collateral
  relationships, or lineal relationships valued
  most?
• Human activity Is the focus on doing, being, or
  becoming?
• Human nature At birth, are people considered
  basically good, bad, neutral, or mixed?
• Supernatural Is the relationship with the
  supernatural one of control,subordination, or
  harmony?

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Human Activity

• In the dominant European American culture
  culture, "doing" is valued over "being" or even
  "being-in-becoming.
• There is a strong belief that one's own worth is
  measured by task accomplishments.
• In the European culture, statements like "do
  something" indicate the positive value placed on
  action.
• In counseling and therapy, the perceived
  "inaction" of a client who may adhere to a
  "being" orientation is usually associated with
  some form of personal inadequacy.

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Relationship with others

• some cultures, relationships tend to be more
  lineal, authoritarian, and hierarchical
  (traditional Asian cultures) in which the father
  is the absolute ruler of the family.
• Some cultures may emphasize a horizontal, equal,
  and collateral relationship
• in the U. S. the dominant value is individual
  autonomy.
• A counseling relationship that tends to be more
  equal and individualistic may prove uncomfortable
  for clients who may adhere to a much more formal
  hierarchical relationship.

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Nature of People

• cultures, societies, and groups may socialize
  people into a trusting or suspicious mode.
• Third World groups, by virtue of their minority
  status in the United States, may develop a
  healthy suspiciousness toward institutions and
  people.
• Unfortunately, because many mental health
  professionals may operate from a different value
  orientation (man is basically neutral or good),
  they may see the minority clients as evidencing
  "paranoid" traits.

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Relation of People to Nature

• Cultures vary in their assumptions regarding to
  nature.
• Many indigenous populations in North America
  perceive themselves as in harmony with nature.
• Other groups perceive themselves as governed by
  nature
• The dominant American culture perceives humans as
  having mastery of nature

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Introduction To Individualism/Collectivism

• This dimension describes the extent to which
  persons see themselves as individuals whose
  identity is separate from any work or social
  group, or as individuals whose identify is
  derived primarily from affiliation with multiple
  work and social groups.
• Individualism is one of the strongest US values

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• Americans learn to think from the underlying
  assumption that the individual is directly
  related to the society without need for an
  intervening group - although involvement with
  family, community, team, and employer is highly
  desirable.
• Not all Americans are highly individualistic in
  behavior or belief, but most native-born
  Americans share a core set of values which
  maintain that it is good to be an individual and
  to express one's self as that individual.

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Collectivism

• In countries on the collective side of this
  dimension, the "seamless" integration of the
  individual into the group is considered a
  principal goal of the society.

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Childhood Socialization

• In individualistic cultures are socialized into
  developing an independent and personal sense of
  duty and responsibility to society, not through
  the group, but as an independent person who
  voluntarily subordinates self to the good of the
  group, team, community, nation etc.
• Children are socialized to create a sense of
  personal morality that ensures, to some degree,
  social order.

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Collectivist cultural socialization

• In highly Collectivist cultures the individual
  has little or no relationship with society EXCEPT
  through the groups in their life
• This may include the persons family,
  gender-based associations, perhaps their clan or
  ethnic group, their workgroup, and perhaps their
  community.

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• Children socialized into the various groups in
  their lives, and it is largely from within those
  groups that they relate to the world for life.
• What is needed, therefore, in a Collectivist
  culture are ethical guidelines which can be
  enforced by social groups, rather than moral
  guidelines designed to be incorporated by
  individuals.

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Collectivist vs. Individual Morality

• In a collective culture, social groups exercise
  primary social control over the individual
• in an individualist culture, only individual
  morality (and good police work) create social
  control over the individuals, who have been
  taught by their culture that they are not
  answerable to anyone except themselves.

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INDIVIDUALISM / COLLECTIVISM CONTRAST STATEMENTS
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In a High Individualism culture, the following
tendencies are very strong

• Individual achievement is the basis for social
  standing
• There are strong social/legal concepts involving
  individual rights
• People are expected to act on their own behalf
  Individuals can hold and express unpopular
  opinions
• Individualized decision making is preferred to
  consensus decision making

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• Social philosophies focus on universal principles
  not on social particulars
• Loyalty to the company is not expected pay for
  performance is expected
• People seek variety and interest in work

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In a High Collectivism culture, the following
tendencies are very strong

• Attributes such as birth, ethnicity, and gender
  are the basis for social standing
• Legal structures protect group and community
  interests
• People are expected to defer to the interests of
  the group and powerful others
• Individuals cannot express unpopular opinions
  without risk of sanction

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• Consensus decision making is preferred
  individualism is seen as dangerous
• Social philosophies focus on privileges and
  prerogatives, not on universal principles
• Loyalty to the company is expected performance
  is secondary

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Techniques of Counseling

• counseling can be conceptualized as breaking down
  into the therapeutic relationship and techniques.
  

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Tactics/techniques of counseling

• "A defined tool or method that is employed by the
  counselor in order to facilitate effective
  counseling or positive behavior change in the
  client"

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What do we mean by therapeutic relationship?

• Definition of Therapeutic Relationship The
  relationship in counseling and psychotherapy is
  defined as the feelings and attitudes that
  counseling participants have toward one another
  and the manner in which these are expressed
  (Gelso Carter, 1985)
• Assumes a reciprocal role for both the counselor
  and client to define the relationship

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Emphasizes that there are two factors in
counseling

• Relationship factors and Technical factors.
• Technical Factors refers to the therapists
  particular theoretical orientation and the
  specific counseling methods used to bring change
  within the client
• The distinction is often very difficult to
  observe, as the counselors theory and techniques
  both influence and are influenced by relationship
  factors

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Why is the therapeutic relationship important?

• Historically The counseling relationship has
  been consistently noted to be essential for
  counseling success.
• Freud and other psychodynamic theorists the role
  of transference and countertransference as
  essential for the understanding of childhood
  conflicts.

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Freud

• Transference a repetition of feelings,
  behaviors, and attitudes toward the counselor,
  but are more accurately belonging to the clients
  significant others from the past.
• Countertransference the counselors transference
  to the events that occur during therapy

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Rogers

• Carl Rogers would emphasize that the therapeutic
  relationship was both necessary and sufficient
  for helping in counseling and that other
  techniques would only prohibit progress in
  counseling.

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The Common Factors Research

• Efforts to reconcile behavior theory and
  psychodynamic therapy resulted in efforts to find
  the common factors in counseling and
  psychotherapy.
• After a review of all psychotherapy theories, as
  well as historical and anthropological
  descriptions of the methods and principles of
  healing, Jerome Frank would eventually define
  psychotherapy as consisting of four components.
• The first component is the therapeutic
  relationship in which the therapist and patient
  have clearly defined roles and expectations.

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Common Factors Research, cont.

• Research in the effectiveness of psychotherapy
  had noted that most therapies are essentially
  equal in their success rates, despite apparent
  differences in their theoretical formulations and
  techniques.
• Studies that examined the elements of therapy to
  determine what aspects of different counseling
  methods found that counseling relationship
  factors were more cited than particular
  techniques in explaining client satisfaction.

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What comprises the therapeutic relationship?

• According to Gelso Carter (1985), the
  components are
• The Working Alliance
• Transference Countertransference
• The Real Relationship

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Working Alliance

• the alignment or joining together of the clients
  reasonable and observing side with the
  counselors working or therapizing side for the
  purpose of facilitating the work of counseling.

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Transference Countertransference

• Transference is always an error. This means that
  not all emotional issues in therapy are examples
  transference. Specifically, it means that only
  displaced emotions coming from past relationships
  reflect transference.
• Transference can either be positive or negative.
• Transference is facilitated by the therapists
  neutrality and ambiguity.
• Transference is not conscious.
• Transference is most likely to come in ones most
  unresolved past issues.

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The Real Relationship two components.

• Genuineness the degree to which the counselor
  is able to be open and honest within the
  counseling relationship
• Realistic Perceptions the accurate perceptions
  by both the counselor and client, unclouded by
  transference and countertransference.

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Rogers Facilitative Conditions

• Empathic Understanding accurate understanding
• Unconditional Positive Regard refers to complete
  acceptance of the client as a person of worth
• Congruence the ability of the counselor to be
  freely himself or herself

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Counseling Techniques Highlen and Hills (1984)
Classification Scheme of Techniques.

• Level 1. Nonverbal Behavior
• Level 2. Verbal Behavior
• Level 3. Covert Behavior.
• Level 4. Interpersonal manner.

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Level 1. Nonverbal Behavior.

• Contain the most specific and clearly observable
  levels of counselor response. They are not
  theoretically-driven. They include

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• Paralanguage pertains to how things are said
  rather than what is said. voice tone, spacing of
  words, emphasis, inflection (loudness, and
  pitch), pauses, various nonlanguage sounds, and
  nonwords
• Facial expression
• Kinesics pertains to body movements other than
  facial expression and eye movements.

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• Looking and gaze aversion. The extent to which
  interactants look at each other and how they look
  at each other during their interaction. Eye
  contact is very culturally determined.
• Proxemics refers to the area of nonverbal
  behavior dealing with the structure and use of
  space in human interaction.
• Touch. Hugging, handshaking, handholding. When,
  if, or how to use touch is clearly not known and
  very controversial.

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Level 2. Verbal Behavior.

• Levels 2-5 contain more abstract and general
  variables that must be inferred.
• Unlike nonverbal behavior, they are often derived
  from a theory of counseling.
• It is at this point that we recognize that
  counseling remains as much an art as it is a
  science.

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Level 2 Response Modes Approach

• in analyzing what the counselor says, the grammar
  is focused more than the content. They include
• Minimal Responses
• Directives

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1. Minimal Responses.

• In Hill's system of categorization the first two
  response modes are called minimal encouragers and
  silence.

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2. Directives.

• The category of directives involves directing the
  client to do something by conveying approval,
  providing information, or giving directions,
  suggestions or advice
• Counseling Texts emphasize that it is important
  for counselors to avoid being too directive so
  that the client does not "own" the process.
• Advice-giving depends upon the theoretical
  perspective of the counselor.

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3. Information Seeking.

• Closed questions and open questions to obtain
  information.
• Open questions seek client exploration or
  clarification whereas closed questions are
  answered with a yes/no.

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The other types are called Complex Counselor
Responses

• Complex Counselor Responses refer to the process
  of counseling as part of the analysis.
• 4. Paraphrase in the text, paraphrases are
  broken down into restatements, reflections,
  nonverbal referents, and summaries.
• Indicate to the client that the therapist is
  listening and attending to the client and they
  enable the client to continue exploration.
• Paraphrases also let therapists check out their
  understanding of what clients are saying.

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• 5. Interpretation usually offers new meaning and
  points to the causes underlying the client's
  actions and feelings. The text points out that
  this is the most complex in terms of skill
  required. They emphasized five types

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• establishing connections between seemingly
  isolated statements, problems, or events,
• points out themes or patterns in the clients
  behavior or feelings, (3) interpretation of
  defenses, resistance, or transference,
• relates present events, experiences, or feelings
  to the past, and
• giving a new framework to feelings, behaviors,
  or problems.

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• Most of these interpretations are clearly
  theory-driven. The counselors perspective will
  determine what will be focused upon and how, if,
  and when a particular interpretation will be used
• The text emphasized that the depth and timing of
  the interpretation are crucial in their
  effectiveness.

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6. Confrontation

• points to some discrepancy or contradiction in
  the client's behavior, thoughts, or feelings.
• Confrontation is definitely a technique which
  varies among counselors

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7. Self-Disclosure

• the revealing of personal information by the
  counselor to the client. The favoring of
  self-disclosure will be heavily influenced by the
  theoretical orientation of the counselor.
• For example, humanistic approaches believe that
  self-disclosure is very helpful, whereas
  psychodynamic approaches believe that
  self-disclosure of the therapist will distract
  the client from self-understanding.

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Level 3. Covert Behavior.

• Refer to the counselors reaction to the session.
  This includes this aspect because internal
  reactions by the counselor significantly
  influence the counselor's treatment of the
  client, verbally and nonverbally.

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One aspect is the study of counselor intentions

• Not surprising, the counselors intentions are
  affected by the theoretical orientation adopted
  by the counselor and will affect the responses
  within counseling.
• What is probably more informative is that
  counselors intentions change during counseling.
  Research needs to explore how and when this
  occurs.

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Level 4. Interpersonal manner.

• refers to constellations of verbal and nonverbal
  behaviors that sum up the personal style of a
  counselor.
• At the most general level, interpersonal manner
  entails how the counselor comes across to the
  client, and is defined by the impressions that
  the counselor creates in his or her clients.

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Sues Model of Cross Cultural Counseling Outcomes

• Derald Sue (1977) developed a counseling model
  based upon Processeses and Goals in Counseling
• Three Stages Preentry Level, Entry Level, and
  Outcome
• Preentry Level includes unique and common
  characteristics of the counselor and client
• the Entry Level refers to the process of
  counseling includes general approaches,
  strategies, and Techniques.
• Outcome Level pertains to the goals of
  counseling desired Outcomes

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Four possible conditions

• Condition I Appropriate Process, Appropriate
  Outcome
• Condition II Appropriate Process, Inappropriate
  Goals
• Condition III Inappropriate Process, Appropriate
  Goals
• Condition IV Inappropriate Process,
  Inappropriate Goals

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Preentry Level for the Culturally Different Client

• At the Preentry level, cultually different
  clients inherit a whole constellation of cultural
  and class values, language factors, and life
  experiences.
• Those factors form the person's cultural identity
  and his/her world view. Oftentimes, the minority
  client's communication style is a function of
  these factors. Further, the counselor is also a
  product of his or her culture, class, language,
  and experiences

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Entry Level

• On entering the "process of counseling,"
  counselors choose a general approach, style, or
  strategy in working with clients.
• All theories of counseling rely heavily on some
  basic techniques in the therapeutic session.

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Outcome Level

• Closely linked to the actual process of
  counseling are certain implicit or explicit goals
  such as insight, self-actualization, or behavior
  change.

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Condition I Appropriate Process, Appropriate
Outcome

• In condition I the client is exposed to a
  counseling process that is consistent with his or
  her values, life experiences,,and culturally
  conditioned way of responding.
• this particular activity of counseling (teaching,
  giving advice, etc.) is not traditionally seen as
  a legitimate part of it.

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Condition II Appropriate Process, Inappropriate
Goals

• Oftentimes, a counseling strategy may be chosen
  by the counselor that is compatible with the
  client's life experiences, but the goals are
  questionable.
• While the approach may be a positive experience
  for many minorities, there is danger here
  regarding control and behavioral objectives.

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• The counselor in this situation may inadvertently
  be imposing his or her own standards and values
  on the client. The end goals place the problem in
  the hands of the individual rather than society,
  which produced the problem.

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• For example to what extent does the client
  assume responsibility for deciding the direction
  of change?
• To what extent is the counselor forcing the
  client to adapt or adjust to a "sick" situation
  that ought to be changed?

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Condition III Inappropriate Process, Appropriate
Goals

• More often than not, counselors tend to use
  inappropriate strategies in working with the
  culturally differenent.
• Early termination of counseling is most likely
  to occur when the process is antagonistic to the
  values of the client and forces him or her to
  violate some basic personal values.

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The theoretical orientation of the counselor may
create Condition III

• The counselor who leans heavily on some form of
  intervention like the behavioral techniques may
  be seen as coercive and manipulative.
• Rogerian conditions of respect for individuals,
  empathy, genuineness, and warmth may be very
  compatible with the values of many Third World
  people.
• However, the Rogerian process of paraphrasing,
  reflecting feelings, and summarizing can be
  incompatible with cultural patterns.

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Condition IV Inappropriate Process,
Inappropriate Goals

• Approaches that are clearly inappropriate in
  terms of techniques and goals most generally lead
  to early termination of counseling.
• Equal treatment may be discriminatory.

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