The Modernization of the Western World

1
Chapter 12 The Modernization of the Western World
2
The French Republic, Its Satellites, and Hostile
States in 1799 1. The war against the European
states by revolutionary France began on April 20,
1792, when a declaration of war was issued
against Austria. By 1793 an informal coalition
against France consisted of Austria, Prussia,
Spain, Portugal, Great Britain, the Dutch
Republic, and Russia. The French army was
quickly on the defensive, being left with only
the area around Paris and the eastern frontier by
July 1793. However, under the guidance of the
Committee of Public Safety, the army was rebuilt
to a force of 1,169,000 men, making it the
largest in Europe. In 1794 the allies were
pushed across the Rhine and the Austrian
Netherlands (Belgium) was conquered. This was
followed in early 1795 by the fall of Holland and
the creation of the Batavian Republic under
French tutelage. 2. The French army of Napoleon
in 1797 crushed the Austrians in Lombardy. By
the Treaty of Campo Formio, the Austrian
Netherlands were ceded to France, French
occupation of the left bank of the Rhine was
confirmed, and recognition was given to the newly
formed Ligurian Republic centered on the city of
Genoa and the Cisalpine Republic around Milan.
In return, Austria had a free hand in absorbing
Venice into its empire. 3. It was also in 1797
after the death of a French general at the hands
of a Roman mob that a French army invaded Rome.
This was followed by the creation of the Roman
Republic under French rule. When Pope Pius VI
protested this action he was made a French
prisoner and died while in custody. The
situation offered Ferdinand IV of Naples an
opportunity to defend the Church while
expropriating papal territory. Rome was easily
conquered in November 1798 but the following
month French troops came down from the north and
defeated the Neapolitan army, chasing it back to
Naples which was seized by the French. The
Parthenopean Republic was established in January
1799 but lasted only five months as Ferdinand
regained his throne with the help of the British
navy. 4. In April of 1798 a French army invaded
Switzerland and set up the Helvetic Republic
under the protection of France. 5. The Treaty of
Luneville in 1801 between France and Austria
confirmed the provisions of Campo Formio and in
addition legitimized the Batavian, Helvetic,
Cisalpine, and Ligurian Republics. Also
reconfirmed was the recognition of the left bank
of the Rhine from the North Sea to Switzerland as
French territory. Finally, Austria agreed to
restructuring the map of Germany into a French
dominated Confederation of the Rhine. Questions
1. How did the boundaries of France change
between 1792 and 1801? 2. How did France
restructure the lands that were conquered? 3.
What were the social and economic consequences of
France controlling such a large part of Europe?
The French Republic, Its Satellites, and Hostile
States in 1799
3

• French Revolution and Napoleon
• The Old Regime
• Absolute monarchy
• Corruption in the court system, parlements
• Estates General not met since 1614
• Clergy numbered 130,000
• Aristocracy was 2 of the population (400,000)
  and owned 20-25 of the land
• Commoners composed 97 of the population
• Bourgeoisie
• Peasants, 80 of the population
• Louis XVI, 1774-1792
• Debt

4

• Estates General called for May, 1789
• Three estates to vote as one as National Assembly
  formed
• Attack on the Bastille, July 14, 1789
• Great Fear
• Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
• Constitution of 1791
• Civil Constitution of the Clergy
• Transferal of power from the aristocracy to the
  bourgeoisie
• Louis XVI attempts to flee France, June 1791
  captured and returned to Paris
• Demise of the Constitution of 1791
• War declared against Austria and Prussia, April
  20, 1792

5

• King removed and republic proclaimed, August 1792
• Reign of Terror
• Jacobins and the National Convention, September
  1792
• Execution of the king, January 21, 1793
• Committee of Public Safety, April 1793-July 1794
• Maximilien Robespierre
• Republic of Virtue
• Lazare Carnot
• Thermidorian Reaction
• End of the Terror and establishment of new
  constitution
• Active role of women in the revolution but few
  social innovations
• The Directory

6

• Napoleon Bonaparte
• Command of the army in Italy, 1796
• Campaign in Egypt
• Return to France, 1799 conspiracy to overthrow
  the government, November 1799
• The Consulate
• Napoleon appointed First Consul
• Peace with Britain, 1801
• Concordat of 1801
• Financial problems solved
• Code Napoleon
• Aristocracy of merit

7
The Napoleonic Empire, 1810-1813 1. A combined
French and Spanish fleet being moved to Holland
in preparation for an invasion of Britain was
destroyed in October 1805 at Trafalgar off the
coast of Spain by a British fleet. 2. On land,
the forces of Napoleon were repeatedly
victorious. At Ulm in October 1805 a large
Austrian army was defeated and soon thereafter
Vienna was occupied. In December 1805 Napoleon
defeated the combined forces of Austria and
Prussia at Austerlitz. The Treaty of Pressburg
resulted in Austria withdrawing from Italy and
Napoleon being recognized as the king of Italy.
The following year the Prussian army was defeated
at Jena and Auerstadt. Berlin was soon
thereafter occupied. In 1807, Napoleon crushed
the Russians at Friedland and seized East
Prussia. 3. By the Treaty of Tilset (1807),
Russia was permitted to take Finland from Sweden
(an enemy of France) and France was free to take
Portugal (a British outpost). Out of Prussia's
territory was carved the Grand Duchy of Warsaw
under French protection. For Russia, there was
concern when in 1809 the territory, on its
doorstep, was enlarged. 4. In November 1806
Napoleon issued the Berlin Decrees that
prohibited his allies from trading with Britain.
The Milan Decree the following year sought to
stop even neutral nations from trading with
Britain. This Continental System hurt the
European economy more than Britain as Napoleon
failed to comprehend how much the two economies
were intertwined. Moreover, Britain declared
that any port refusing to receive its goods would
be blockaded. Significantly, Britain had the
navy to back up the promise while the French
after Trafalgar had virtually no navy to stop
them. 5. At the end of 1810, Russia withdrew
from the Continental System prompting Napoleon to
act. By June of 1812 Napoleon had amassed an
army of over 600,000 men, though by the time he
reached Russia it was down to 422,000. Unwilling
to do battle, the Russians retreated, embracing a
scorched earth policy. Only at Borodino, outside
Moscow, did they give battle. The Russians
inflicted 30,000 casualties on the French but
suffering twice as many for themselves. The
French entered Moscow in September 1812 and
promptly the city was set afire by the
Muscovites. With winter beginning to set in,
Napoleon ordered withdrawal. Begun in October,
the retreat turned into a disaster as the ravages
of winter and attacking Russians depleted the
withdrawing troops. Only about 10,000 of the
original number made it to German soil. 6. With
a reconstituted army, Napoleon crushed Austria,
Prussia, and Russia at Dresden in 1813 but a few
months later he was decisively defeated at
Leipzig. An allied army followed Napoleon to
Paris. He abdicated in March 1814. Exiled to
Elba off the coast of Italy, Napoleon escaped in
March 1815 and fought one last battle at Waterloo
where he was again decisively defeated on June
18, 1815. Questions 1. Why was Napoleon such a
successful general? 2. Why was the Russian
campaign the beginning of the end for
Napoleon? 3. Why was Napoleon allowed to go into
exile rather than be executed by the victorious
allies?
The Napoleonic Empire, 1810-1813
8

• Napoleonic Empire
• Crowns himself emperor, 1804
• War against Britain, 1803
• Battle of Trafalgar, October 21, 1805
• Military successes of Napoleon
• Continental System
• Peninsular Wqar
• Russia breaks Continental System
• Invasions of Russia, 1812
• Defeat of Napoleon, 1814
• Hundred Days, 1815

9
Prussia and Austria after the Peace of Vienna,
1815 1. The Treaty of Paris in 1814 resulted in
a lenient peace for France. The monarchy was
restored with Louis XVIII (1814-1824) ascending
the throne and France was permitted to retain
some of the territories in western Germany and
parts of the Austrian Netherlands which it had
captured by 1792. 2. Although Poland was
reconstituted out of the Duchy of Warsaw, Prussia
and Austria were allowed to keep some Polish
territory. Thus, the new Polish kingdom was only
three-quarters the size of the previous Duchy of
Warsaw. The crown was to be worn by the Russian
tsar. To compensate Prussia for the loss of some
of its Polish lands, parts of Saxony and the
kingdom of Westphalia were conceded as well as
the left bank of the Rhine. 3. The Austrian
Netherlands were handed over to Holland to create
a united Netherlands. In return, Austria
received the northern Italian provinces of
Lombardy and Venetia which would give it
interests in the course of Italian affairs. The
marriage in the Netherlands, however, was not a
good one since the two areas differed in culture,
language, and religion. Likewise, there would be
future resentment in Italy over Austrian
interference. 4. In Italy, the Kingdom of
Piedmont and Sardinia was extended to the border
with Switzerland. 5. Switzerland became a
perpetually neutral state. 6. The Confederation
of the Rhine created by Napoleon was replaced by
the German Confederation. It was composed of
thirty-nine independent German states including
parts of Prussia and the Austrian Empire. The
presence of both states would lead to future
conflicts over control of the confederation. 7.
Effectively, a belt had been placed around France
to contain it from any future aggression the
Netherlands in the north and the German
Confederation, Switzerland, and Piedmont in the
east. Moreover, Prussia had received considerable
territory on France's eastern frontier to deter
any French aggression from that
quarter. Questions 1. How was Europe
reorganized after the Napoleonic Wars? 2. What
was the rationale behind the restructuring of
Europe at the Congress of Vienna? 3. What were
the potential problems created by the "new
Europe" constructed at the Congress of Vienna?
Prussia and Austria after the Peace of Vienna,
1815
10
Latin America in the Early Nineteenth Century 1.
When Napoleon deposed the Spanish king in 1808,
placing his brother Joseph on the throne, some
colonial leaders cited ancient Spanish law to
declare that the removal justified the shift of
sovereignty back to the people. Increasingly,
authority was seized to hold in trust for the
true king, Ferdinand VII. Radicals, however,
regarded the conditions as an opportunity to
throw off the authority of Spain. Under the
leadership of Simón Bolívar in the north,
Venezuela, Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia were freed
from Spanish control between 1810 and 1824. In
the south, José de San Martín, operating from
independent Argentina, freed Chile in 1818.
Under Bolívar, Gran Columbia (Venezuela,
Colombia, and Ecuador) was created. It did not
work and by 1830 both Venezuela and Ecuador had
fallen away. 2. With the French approaching
Lisbon, the British spirited away King João VI in
1808 to the Portuguese colony of Brazil. When
João was summoned back to Portugal after the war,
he left behind his son Pedro who took the lead as
the sentiment for independence developed. When
Brazil declared independence in 1822, Pedro I
(1822-1831) was crowned emperor. As discontent
over his rule increased, Pedro was deposed in
1831. He was replaced by his five year old son
Pedro II who would rule Brazil after a series of
regencies until overthrown in 1889. 4. Radicals
seized the opportunity for independence in Buenos
Aires in 1810 and by 1816 the city and outlying
provinces had formed the United Provinces of the
River Plate, the basis for the Argentine state.
After a struggle with Brazil over adjoining
territory in the northeast, Uruguay was created
in 1828 as a buffer. 5. Mexico became
independent in 1821 following a conservative
rebellion that was driven by fears of the
consequences of a liberal revolt in Spain. Like
Brazil, Mexico established a monarchy in 1822 but
it collapsed the following year and a republic
was established. Brought into newly independent
Mexico was Central America. They separated
themselves in 1823 as the United Provinces of
Central America. In 1838, the United Provinces
disintegrated into five separate states. 6. In
1791 during the French Revolution the slaves in
Saint Dominique (Haiti) under Toussaint
L'Cverture rebelled against their masters.
Napoleon sent troops in 1799 to restore colonial
order but weakened by disease, the French army
was defeated. On January 1, 1804, the colony
was proclaimed independent. Off and on, the
Haitians controlled the whole island until 1844
when the Dominican Republic won its
independence. 7. In 1823 President James Monroe
warned the Europeans against any attempts to
regain their former colonies in the Americas.
This so called Monroe Doctrine eventually became
U.S. policy. 8. Remaining as colonial
possessions were British Honduras, Cuba (Spain),
Puerto Rico (Spain), British Guiana, Dutch
Guiana, and French Guiana. Questions 1.Why
would it be important that Latin America remain
independent? How important was the declaration
by President Monroe of the United States 2. Why
did some states opt for a republic and others for
a monarchy?
Latin America in the Early Nineteenth Century
11

• Reform and Revolution
• Congress of Vienna led by foreign minister of
  Austria Prince Klemens von Metternich
• Push back Frances borders
• Return of legitimate monarchs to power
• Louis XVIII of France
• Ignores democratic and nationalist sentiments
• Concert of Europe
• French rebellion in 1830
• Revolt and Independence in Latin America
• Rebellion on Saint Doninique (Haiti)
• Impact of the Napoleonic Wars
• Simón Bolivar and José de San Martín

12
Centers of Revolt in 1848-1849 1. The
Revolutions of 1848 had their origin in France
during the European industrial and agricultural
depression of 1846. By the end of 1847 one-third
of the workers in Paris were unemployed. When
the government of King Louis-Philippe (1830-1848)
failed to make timely changes, a rebellion broke
out which forced the king to abdicate in February
1848. After the provisional government closed
some of the workshops another rebellion forced
the creation of a new constitution, thereby
establishing the Second French Republic. 2. The
news of the revolt in Paris and the activities of
the proletariat gave strength in Germany to both
the handicraft workers who wrecked machines and
factories and the peasants who burned and looted
the homes of the nobility. Several German
princes responded by offering liberal reforms
including constitutions. This was the case in
Baden, Wurttemberg, and Saxony. In Prussia, King
Frederick William IV (1840-1861) agreed in 1848
to establish a constitution and work for a united
Germany after violence exploded in Berlin. A
constituent assembly was formed but by early 1849
the king disbanded it, granting a conservative
constitution and reasserting rule by divine
right. Meanwhile, more than 800 self-appointed
German delegates met in Frankfurt, the seat of
the German Confederation, to write a federal
constitution for a unified Germany. When the
crown was offered Frederick William, he turned it
down. 4. In June 1848 Czech nationalism in
Bohemia came into conflict with the nationalism
of the dominant Germans. The differing
aspirations played into the hands of the
Austrians who sought to reestablish their
control. The Czech rebels in Prague were soon
crushed. 5. The failures of 1830-1831 in Italy
led to a new direction under the guidance of
Guiseppi Mazzini who sought both unification and
the expulsion of the Austrians. In 1848 liberal
rebellions spread north from Sicily. A republic
was proclaimed in Venice and it attacked Austrian
Lombardy but by 1849 both were back in Austrian
hands. Generally, the Italian revolts had
failed. Questions 1. What were the origins of
the Revolutions of 1848? 2. Why did the
Revolutions of 1848 generally fail?
Centers of Revolt in 1848-1849
13

• Monroe Doctrine, 1823
• Mexico
• Brazil
• New Latin American states become economically
  dependent
• Social and Political development
• Karl Marx and Socialism
• Industrial working conditions
• Socialism
• Class conflict
• Revolutions of 1848
• Revolt in France Second French Republic
• Revolts in Austria, Prussia, and Italy
• Demands for more representative government

14
The Unification of Italy 1. Although the
revolts generally failed in 1848, Piedmont
retained its liberal constitution achieved under
duress in March. To many middle class Italians,
Piedmont appeared to be the liberal, progressive
state to lead the way to national
unification. 2. Prior to 1859, Count Camillo di
Cavour, the prime minister of Victor Emmanuel II,
sought only to unite the states of northern and
central Italy with Piedmont. He had no interest
in either the Papal States or the Kingdom of the
Two Sicilies since their cultures were different
from that of Piedmont. Nevertheless, to expand
into Lombardy, Venetia, Parma, Modena, and part
of the northern Papal States would require a
powerful ally to counter Austria. To this end he
sought a French alliance with a promise of Nice
and Savoy in return for military support. When
Piedmont provoked Austria to war in April 1859,
France dutifully joined its ally in invading
Lombardy. In July, France suddenly made peace
with Austria and withdrew from the war.
Apparently it feared the mobilization of Prussian
forces in support of Austria. The peace between
Austria and Piedmont that followed left Lombardy
with Piedmont. Because France had not fulfilled
its obligations, Piedmont also kept Nice and
Savoy. 3. During the war between Piedmont and
Austria, nationalists seized power in Parma,
Modena, Tuscany, and parts of the Papal States.
Plebiscites were held in 1860 and the states
voted to join Piedmont. For permitting the
annexations, France received Nice and Savoy. 4.
In the south, Giuseppe Garibaldi lent his support
to a revolt in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.
He captured Palermo in Sicily and by September
1860 the entire kingdom had fallen. He pushed on
to Naples and prepared to attack Rome that would
undoubtedly bring France into the conflict as
protector of the papacy. Cavour feared French
intervention and thus struck first into the Papal
States and moved into the Kingdom of Naples.
Rather than seek confrontation and civil war,
Garibaldi yielded. A plebiscite was held and
both the Papal States and the Kingdom of the Two
Sicilies agree to join Piedmont. The Kingdom of
Italy was proclaimed in March 1861 with Victor
Emmanuel II (1861-1878) as king. 5. The Austrian
territory of Venetia became part of Italy as a
result of the prudent association of Italy with
Prussia in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866.
Although the Italians lost on the battlefield,
the Prussian peace required Austria to hand over
Venetia to Italy. 6. As war between France and
Prussia seemed immanent in 1870, France withdrew
its protective troops from Rome. Defenseless,
the pope permitted Rome to be annexed in
September 1870 in return for making it the new
capital of united Italy. Questions 1. Why would
France be willing to help Piedmont against
Austria? 2. For Europe, what was the consequence
of the formation of Italy?
The Unification of Italy
15

• Europe 1848-1914
• Second Napoleonic Empire
• Louis Napoleon, 1852-1870
• Economic growth
• Active foreign policy Russia and China
• Failure in Mexico
• Unification of Italy
• Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia
• Count Camillo di Cavour, prime minister
• Alliance with France in anticipation of war with
  Austria
• War with Austria, 1859
• Austria driven out of Lombardy
• France makes separate peace

16
The Unification of German Empire 1. In 1834 the
Zollverein was established under the leadership
of Prussia to stimulate trade by reducing tariffs
and to increase revenues for member states. By
1853 all the German states but Austria had joined
the customs union. Thus, a united economic
Germany minus Austria was created. 2. Schleswig
and Holstein were inhabited by Germans and Danes.
Since the settlement of 1815, Holstein had been
part of the German Confederation. Both states
were under the control of the king of Denmark who
in 1864 sought to annex them. To thwart this,
Prussia invited Austria to defend the territories
against Denmark. The war was brief and Denmark
had to renounce all claims. Prussia and Austria
jointly were to administer the two territories.
In this manner Austria played into Prussia's
hands as inevitably the two would quarrel. When
this happened it would give Prussia a chance to
remove Austria from German affairs and the German
Confederation. The predictable war broke out in
1866 and lasted only seven weeks, culminating in
the battle at Koneggratz and a Prussian victory.
In the peace, Austria agreed to give up Schleswig
and Holstein, surrender Venetia to Prussia's ally
Italy, and withdraw from German affairs. 3.
Prussia created the North German Confederation by
incorporating all German states north of the Main
River. The southern German Catholic states that
had allied with Austria during the war were
forced to agree to military alliances. In
addition, Hanover, Hesse-Kassel, and the free
city of Frankfurt were annexed because they had
sided with Austria during the conflict. 4. To
bring the final states into a German union, Otto
von Bismarck, chancellor of the new North German
Confederation, sought a confrontation with
France. He believed that exploitation of French
nationalism would bring the desired result.
Thus, he took advantage of the tempest over the
Prussian nomination of a Hohenzollern to sit on
the vacant Spanish throne. War broke out in July
1870 culminating in the defeat of the French in
September at the battle of Sedan. Following
the loss, which included the capture of Napoleon
III, the French overthrew the monarchy and
proclaimed a republic. Nevertheless, the French
vowed to fight on with the result that Paris was
besieged. After five months, in January, 1871,
the city surrendered. In the peace that followed
France had to surrender to Prussia the border
territories of Alsace and Lorraine. 5. Even
before the war ended, the south German states
agreed to join the North German Confederation.
On January 18, 1871, William I (1871-1888) was
proclaimed the emperor of a united German
Empire. Questions 1. What drove Prussia to
create a united Germany? 2. Why was it necessary
for Prussia to seek a war with Austria and France
in order to create a united German state?
The Unification of the German Empire
17

• Northern Italy, except Venetia, joins Sardinia
• Nice and Savoy given to France
• Guiseppe Garibaldi
• Conquers southern Italy, swears loyalty to the
  king
• Kingdom of Italy proclaimed, 1861
• Acquisition of Venetia and Rome
• Unification of Germany
• Otto von Bismarck, Realpolitik
• War against Denmark, 1864
• War against Austria, 1866
• North German Confederation
• Franco-Prussian War, 1870-1871
• Acquisition of Alsace and Lorraine
• Union of north and south Germany

18
The United States and Canada in the Nineteenth
Century 1. The 1783 victory of the Americans in
the War for Independence brought them by way of
treaty the lands east of the Mississippi River to
the Appalachian Mountains The American claim to
the territory was enhanced by Revolutionary
victories in the Ohio River valley. In a
separate 1783 treaty, Florida was returned to
Spain by the British. 2. Under pressure from
Napoleon, Spain ceded back to France in l8OO the
vast Louisiana territory. Three years later,
with Napoleon needing cash to resume his war in
Europe, France sold Louisiana for 15 million to
the U.S. Explorations by Meriweather Lewis and
William Clark in 1804-1805 established the
American claim to the northwestern territory.
Acting as if the Louisiana Purchase included
Florida, the United States added a slice of West
Florida to the state of Louisiana upon its
admission in 1812 and another slice to the
Mississippi territory. In the Adams-Onis Treaty
of 1819, Spain ceded East Florida to the United
States and renounced its claim to West
Florida. 3. In 1836 rebellious Texans defeated
President/General Santa Anna of Mexico at San
Jacinto in southeast Texas and gained their
independence. Texas remained an independent
nation until 1845 when it was admitted as a state
to the United States. In part, the admission of
Texas was a cause of the Mexican-American War
(1846-48). The conclusion of the war with the
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo brought to the United
States California, Nevada, Utah, Colorado,
Arizona, and New Mexico. In addition, the U.S.
acquisition of Texas was recognized. 4. Oregon
territory was claimed by Russia, Spain, Britain,
and the new United States. Spain and Russia
dropped their claim while the United States and
Britain sparred over the jointly occupied area.
In the 1830s and 1840 Americans increasingly
moved into the territory and it became an issue
in the 1844 election. In 1849 the United States
and Britain agreed to demarcation at the
forty-ninth parallel. 5. In 1837 and 1838 two
separate rebellions broke out in Canada as
colonists sought self-rule. As a result of a
report to Queen Victoria in 1840, Parliament in
the Act of Union combined Lower and Upper Canada
into the new United Province of Canada.
Self-government, however, was not granted. Due
to sectional differences, the union was not a
happy one. In 1867 Parliament passed the British
North American Act in which Upper Canada became
the province of Ontario and Lower Canada became
Quebec. These provinces were united with Nova
Scotia and New Brunswick. In the Pacific west,
the colonies of Vancouver Island (1849) and
British Columbia (1858) were created. In 1870
the province of Manitoba was added to Canada and
the following year British Columbia was included
when the government agree to build the Canadian
Pacific Railroad to the link the new province
with the east. Prince Edward Island joined Canada
in 1873. The Hudson's Bay Company lands became
the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan in
1905. In 1912 other parts of the Company's lands
were added to Quebec, Ontario, and Manitoba.
Newfoundland finally became a province in
1948. Questions 1. What claims allowed the
United States to expand? 2. How was Canada
created?
The United States and Canada in the Nineteenth
Century
19

• United States
• Sectional differences
• Some southern politicians argued the union could
  be dissolved, states created the union
• Northern politicians argued the American people
  created the union
• Struggle over tariffs and slavery
• Abraham Lincoln
• Civil War, 1861-1865
• Austria-Hungary
• Ethnic unrest after 1848
• Ausgleich, 1867, Dual Monarchy

20

• Russia
• Multiethnic empire
• Russification of minority groups
• Eager to gain warm-water ports through the
  Balkans
• Creation of Bulgarian state by Treaty of San
  Stefano, 1877
• Congress of Berlin, 1878
• Confirms independence of Balkan states, reduces
  size of Bulgaria, Austria to administer Bosnia
  and Herzgovina
• Political Developments to 1914
• Development of more democratic institutions in
  Britain
• Parliament Act
• Women use marches and violence to demand
  political rights

21

• France Proclaims the Third Republic
• Figurehead president
• Legislation to protect workers
• Active participation of unions in the political
  process
• Syndicalism
• Mass corruption in Italian politics
• Germany
• Federation of 25 states
• Universal male suffrage for the Reichstag
• Chancellor answerable to the emperor
• Austro-Hungarian Empire had limited political
  changes
• Russia
• Mensheviks and Bolsheviks
• 1905 Revolt

22
Spread of Industrialization
23
The Spread of Industry by 1850 1. Hindering
industrial growth in Europe were the wars between
1790 and 1815 that played havoc with the
economies. After the conflicts, Europeans were
unwilling to make the investments necessary for
the newest machinery. Instead, businessmen opted
to use older, less productive machines. 2. In
France, as well as the rest of Europe, the wars
had resulted in the interruption of the supply of
cotton due to the British blockade. Thus, the
wool industry exploded. It was concentrated in
France, Belgium, and northern Germany. Since
manual labor was cheap, mechanization was slow.
Moreover, the consequence of the inundation of
British cotton goods was production of specialty
goods not made in England. As a result,
mechanization in France first occurred in the
silk industry and then in cotton specialties. 3.
The three centers of industrialization on the
Continent were Belgium, France, and the German
states. In Belgium, where there was an abundance
of cheap coal and scarce water power, the steam
engine became a source of power to run the
textile factories. France was a distant second
to Britain in cotton manufacturing and was
dependent upon less efficient machines and labor.
Moreover, manufacturing was dispersed throughout
France. Regardless, early industrialization in
Belgium and France provided the conduit through
which mechanics could spread their knowledge on
the Continent. 4. Unlike Britain which built
its industrialization upon cotton manufacturing,
the Continent witnessed heavy industry leading
the way with its reliance upon plentiful coal and
iron reserves. Nevertheless, Germany, which
failed to utilize the tremendous coal reserves it
had in the Ruhr, built an iron industry on the
old method of burning wood for the charcoal. 5.
In banking, the Belgian banks of Societe General
and Banque de Belgique developed large capital
resources by accepting deposits from many
depositors and then investing it in large scale
projects such as railroads, mining, and heavy
industry. This proved particularly important in
developing the Belgian coal industry that was to
become the largest on the continent in the 1840s.
The Credit Mobilier in France, the Darnstadt
Bank in Germany, and the Kreditanstalt in Austria
served the same purposes. 6. Whereas Britain had
large population concentrations in the cities
(see Acetate 69), such migration and growth were
not evident on the Continent. In France, by 1851
Paris had a population of one million and only
Lyons and Marseilles approached 200,000. In
Germany and Austria only five cities had more
than 100,000 inhabitants. The most heavily
industrialized country in Europe, Belgium, still
had almost fifty percent of its male workers
involved in agriculture. Questions 1. What was
the uniqueness of European industrialization? 2.
In terms of urban growth, how was the
industrialization of continental Europe different
from that of Britain? What was the consequence
of this?
The Spread of Industry by 1850
24

• Spread of Industrialization
• Use of steam power
• George Stephensons Rocket, 1830
• Robert Fultons Clermont, 1807
• Role of government in industrialization
• Tariffs, subsidies, capital investment
• Count Serge Witte or Russia
• Limitations by lack of capital and natural
  resources
• New Industries
• Rise of Big Business
• Britain adopts free trade, other nations follow
• Small and medium size firms compete for business
• Appearance of monopolies in 1870s

25

• Social Classes
• Population growth
• Overcrowded industrial cities
• Economic classes
• Upper, middle, lower
• Urban worker
• Skilled workers
• Semiskilled workers
• Unskilled workers
• Differences in class structure of North and South
  America

26

• Women and the Family
• New employment opportunities
• Generally excluded from skilled and better paying
  jobs
• Assumption of other sources of income, wages stay
  low
• Rural area women drawn to the city
• Consequences of the lack of parental supervision
• Part-time work after marriage
• Social Reforms
• Initiate reforms to forestall revolutions
• Political parties campaign on reform issues
• Use the power of the state to aid underprivileged
• Active trade unions

27

• Cultural and Intellectual Trends
• The Romantic Movement
• Emotional responses in literature, challenge
  basic attitudes toward society
• Nature a powerful theme
• Use of the supernatural
• Violent motions in art
• Heroic symphonies
• Materialism
• Belief matter the causal agent in the universe,
  to the exclusion of spiritual things
• Positivism applies scientific method to all
  academic disciplines
• Auguste Comte

28

• Realism
• Depiction of life as it really is
• Impressionist painters, impact of light and color
• Novelist bring society to life
• Survival of the Fittest
• Charles Darwin
• Social Darwinism
• Culture in America
• Life of pioneer and farmer
• Muckrakers
• Transcendentalism
• Individual experience
• Latin America stuck to European models