CHAPTER 1: WHAT IS LANGUAGE?

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CHAPTER 1WHAT IS LANGUAGE?

• PowerPoint by Don L. F. Nilsen
• to accompany
• An Introduction to Language (8th or 9th edition
  2007/2011)
• by Victoria Fromkin, Robert Rodman
• and Nina Hyams

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LANGUAGE PLAY MAPPING

• The primary function of language is not to
  communicate, but is rather to think creatively or
  analogically. Language play allows humans to
  map an infinite number of real-world details onto
  a small finite number of sounds, letters and
  words.
• (cf. Fromkin Rodman Hyams 2011 8-11)

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• And the exciting thing is that this mapping
  happens not only for the infinite details of the
  real world, but of all possible worlds whether
  real, discovered, invented, postulated,
  fictionalized, or imagined.

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THE CONTINUITY PARADOX

• Derek Bickerton states it as follows Until we
  cease to regard language as primarily
  communicative and begin to treat it as primarily
  representational, we cannot hope to escape from
  the Continuity Paradox (Bickerton 689).

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FORM-MEANING CORRELATION

• CONTRAST SOUNDS, SPELLINGS AND MEANINGS
• Antonyms tall vs. short
• Converses buy vs. sell
• Cognates embarrassed vs. embarazada
• Heteronyms minute vs. minute
• Homographs bank vs. bank
• Homonyms Homographs or Homophones
• Homophones too vs. two vs. to
• Hyponyms metaphor vs. metaphor
• Synonyms big vs. large
• (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 2011 196-198)

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• WORD-LEVEL VS. SENTENCE-LEVEL GRAMMAR
• LEXICAL SYNTACTIC
• AMBIGUITY Take your pick! Call me a taxi!
• ANOMALY She wanted a gnepf. John me
  cow a gave.
• PARAPHRASE William hit a policeman. Bill hit
  John.
• vs. Bill slugged a cop. vs. John
  was hit by Bill.

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WHAT A GRAMMAR MUST DEAL WITH

• Analysis vs. Synthesis
• Parsing vs. Generative Grammar
• Denotation vs. Connotation
• Pro-Choice vs. Pro-Life views of abortion
• Systematic vs. Accidental Gaps schplick vs.
  blick

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FORM VS. MEANING

• Linguistics is concerned with the mapping of
  meaning onto form (decoding) and form onto
  meaning (encoding).
• The form is the surface structure (phonology,
  graphology, morphology and syntax)
• The meaning is the deep structure (semantics,
  pragmatics, discourse)
• (cf. Fromkin Rodman Hyams 2011 8-11)

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LEVELS OF ADEQUACY

• Prescriptive Adequacy What people should do
• Descriptive Adequacy What people do do
• Explanatory Adequacy Patterns, Trends, and
  Predictions
• Evaluative Adequacy Based on Elegance
• Simplicity
• Completeness
• Internal Consistency
• Generative Power
• (cf. Fromkin Rodman Hyams 2011 13-18)

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SURFACE STRUCTURE

• Syntax Allotag Tagmeme
• Morphology Allomorph Morpheme
• Graphology Allograph Grapheme
• Phonology Allophone Phoneme

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DEEP STRUCTURE

• Pragmatics (Context, Deictics, Anaphora, Speech
  Acts, Conversational Implicatures, Intent,
  Felicity Conditions)
• Pragmatics Allobehavior Behavioreme
• Semantics Alloseme Sememe

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EVOLUTION

• During the past five million years, our
  forebears became predominantly right-handed, made
  use of increasingly sophisticated tools, and
  organized their culture in ever more complex
  ways. This evolution resulted in a puny,
  almost hairless animal, with a bent windpipe that
  reduced breathing efficiency to nearly half of
  its original capacity. The creatures teeth were
  practically useless for chewing. But we had an
  asymetrical brain with the left hemisphere being
  efficient at learning language. (Heny 634).

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M. A. K. Hallidays 7 Functions of Language

• Instrumental To get things done
• Regulatory To control other people
• Interactional To define groups and relationships
• Personal To express feelings and beliefs
• HeuristicTo test hypotheses or to learn
• Imaginative To create a world
• Representational To give information (Clark, 52)

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In terms of language,Whos in charge?

• We make language more than language makes us
  (Clark, 55).
• Go to slide 15 to find out what Humpty Dumpty
  said about language?

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In Through the Looking-Glass Humpty Dumpty Says
to Alice

•     I dont know what you mean by glory, 
  Alice said.
•     Humpty Dumpty smiled contemptuously. Of
  course you donttill I tell you. I meant
  theres a nice knock-down argument for you! 
•     But glory doesnt mean a nice knock-down
  argument, Alice objected.
•     When I use a word, Humpty Dumpty said, in a
  rather a scornful tone, it means just what I
  choose it to meanneither more nor less.
• The question is, said Alice, whether
  you can make words mean so many different
  things.
• The question is, said Humpty Dumpty, which is
  to be master.  Thats all.

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Poem by Maurice Evan Hare

• There once was a man who said, Damn!
• It is born in upon me I am
• An engine that moves
• In predestinate grooves,
• Im not even a bus Im a tram.
• --Aitchison 560

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THE INNATENESS HYPOTHESIS

• Noam Chomsky claims that language is innate.
• B. F. Skinner claims that language is learned it
  is basically a stimulus-response mechanism.

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Noam Chomsky reviewed B. F. Skinners Verbal
Behavior in Language, the journal of the
Linguistic Society of America and convincingly
presented twelve types of evidence that language
is basically innate, not learned.
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• Language is very complex. Consider the
  complexity of any complete English grammar book.
• 2. The model for language learning is imperfect.
  Mothers use caregiver language friends use baby
  talk children use modified grammar
  (holophrastic, pivot-open, or telegraphic).
• 3. All humans learn a spoken language (NOTE
  Chomsky does not claim that written language is
  innate).
• (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 2011 1-34)

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4. No animals learn a human-type language.
However, some animal languages are
impressive primates (Vikki-Hayes,
Koko-Patterson, Warshow-Gardners, Lana, Nim
Chimsky-Terrace, Sarah-Thomas/Church) bees (Von
Frisch) dolphins (Lilly) birds, parrots and
cockatiels canines equines bovines felines ants (c
f. Fromkin Rodman Hyams 2011 21-27)
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• ANIMAL MESSAGES Come. Go. Food. Protection
  (camouflage, assistance, misleading enemies).
  Sex. Territory, Dominance, Mimic, Defiance,
  Friendship, Attention
• ANIMAL LANGUAGE Calls. Body Coloring and Shape.
  Tail Slap, Facial Expression. Tail Wagging,
  Baring Throat, Dancing (Round, Tail-wagging,
  Sickle), Whistling, Chuttering, Attacking,
  Singing, Giving Off Pheromones
• HUMAN-LANGUAGES AMONG ANIMALS AMESLAN, Yerkish,
  Computers, Magnetic Chips, Sugar Fruit, Finger
  Bracelet 2nd-Generation Language (Planet of the
  Apes)

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WASHOW SIGNING TICKLE (KEMP AND SMITH 671)
671)
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AMERICAN SIGN LANGUAGE CONFIGURATION (Emmorey
82)(cf Fromkin Rodman Hyams 2011 257-258)
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AMERICAN SIGN LANGUAGE PLACE (Emmorey 82) (cf
Fromkin Rodman Hyams 2011 257-258)
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AMERICAN SIGN LANGUAGE MOVEMENT (Emmorey 82)
(cf Fromkin Rodman Hyams 2011 257-258)
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BEES ROUND DANCE (Kemp Smith 663)
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BEES TAIL-WAGGING DANCE (Kemp and Smith 664)
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SARAHS SYMBOLS (Kemp and Smith 672)
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YERKISH LEXIGRAMS (Kemp and Smith 672)
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5. There are many human-language universals, and
these are only a small subset of semiotic
possibilities computer languages dont have
these same natural-language constraints
(embedding, cross-over, A over A, etc.). 6.
There is a critical age for foreign-language
acquisition (around puberty). 7. There is a
sequence in language acquisition (holophrastic,
pivot-open, telegraphic, adult). Note also color
acquisition in both phylogeny and
ontogeny. (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 2011 1-37)
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8. Human language is rule-governed (like
mathematics). It is not memorized. 9. Human
language is very creative. Except for
small-talk, almost all sentences are novel.
Language can adjust to new situations (unlike
bee-language for unexpected placing of honey
source). (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 2011 1-37)
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10. Human language has duality. A limited number
of symbols are reused in many different
ways. 11. Human language has displacement in
Time, Place, and Truth. 12. Human language is
not predictable. Given a particular stimulus,
there is a much wider range of responses for
humans than for animals. (Fromkin Rodman Hyams
2011 1-37)
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CONCLUSION

• The most important of Chomskys observations is
  that Language is Creative.
• Language should not be prescribed, as that would
  limit its creativity. Rather, language should be
  allowed to adapt to social situations. In other
  word language VARIES in the following ways

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LANGUAGE VARIATION

• V-Vocational Differences
• A-Age Differences
• Individual (holophrastic vs. adult language)
• Language (Old English vs. Modern English)
• R-Regional Differences
• I-Informality Differences
• E-Ethnic Differences
• S-Sex Differences

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METAPHOR, METONYMY, SYNECDOCHE, IRONY AND
LANGUAGE PLAY

• The most creative aspect of language is its
  ability to adapt to new situations, and it does
  this by using the Master Tropes Metaphor,
  Metonymy, Synecdoche, and Irony.

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HOMO ERECTUS, HOMO SAPIENS, HOMO LOQUENS AND HOMO
RIDENS

• Humans have been called homo erectus because
  like primates, kangaroos and chickens they stand
  erect.
• They have been called homo sapiens because they
  are the thinking animal.
• They have been called home loquens because they
  are the talking animal.
• But they have been called homo ridens because
  they are the only animal that laughs
  appropriately.

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LANGUAGE FOR ENGAGEMENTLANGUAGE FOR TRANSCENDENCE

• Language is a tool that allows us to deal with
  the real world. It allows us to solve the
  problems of the real world. It helps us survive.
• But as we spend less and less time working to
  survive and more and more time thinking and
  pondering, our language needs to meet these new
  needs.

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Exercise 2 Ungrammatical

• A. Robin forced the sherrif go.
• B. Napoleon forced Josephine to go.
• C. The devil made Faust go.
• D. He passed by a large pile of money.
• E. He came by a large sum of money
• F. He came a large sum of money by.
• G. Did in a corner little Jack Horner sit?
• H. Elizabeth is resembled by Charles
• Nancy is eager to please.
• (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 2011 38-39)

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• J. It is easy to frighten Emily.
• K. It is eager to love a kitten.
• L. That birds can fly amazes.
• M. The fact you are late to class is surprising.
• N. Has the nurse slept the baby yet?
• O. I was surprised for you to get married.
• P. I wonder who and Mary went swimming.
• Q. Myself bit John.
• R. What did Alice eat the toadstool with?
• S. What did Alice eat the toadstool and?
• (Fromkin Rodman Hyams 2011 38-39)

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Exercise 3 Onomatopoeia

• Animals across languages
• Cows Horses Pigs
• Chickens Roosters Chicks
• Lions Tigers Goat
• Cats Dogs Turkeys
• Geese Pigeons Sheep
• Pigs Frogs Donkeys
• Hens Crows Flies
• (Fromkin, Rodman Hyams 2011 39)

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Exercise 3 Sound Symbolism
Bang Beep Bubble Buzz Clap Click Crackle Crunch Gong Groan Gurgle Hiss Kerplop Screech Sigh Slap Slurp Smack Smash Snap Swish Thump Tinkle Whiz Zing Snap crackle pop (Fromkin, Rodman Hyams 2011 39)
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Exercise 3 Reduplication
Children Bowwow Dada Dingdong Doodoo Mama Peepee Weewee Adults Hanky Panky Ticktock Tooty Fruity Zig Zag Zsa Zsa Other Examples (Fromkin, Rodman Hyams 2011 92)
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Exercise 4 Iconicity Paralanguage
I II III IV X 1 2 3 0 ? ? ? ? ? . ? ! Shhh! Shush! Hiss Tsk tsk Uh Huh! (yes) Uh uh (no) Huh? Giddyup (lateral click) Raspberry (Bronx Cheer) Uchhhhh Yuchhhhh Wolf Whistle Swearing (_at_!) (Fromkin, Rodman Hyams 2011 39)
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Exercise 12 Pygmalion by George Bernard Shaw

• The rain in Spain is mainly on the plain.
• In Heartford, Herriford and Hartshire,
  hurricanes hardly ever happen.
• Look at hera prisoner of the gutters
• Condemned by evry syllable she utters.
• By right she should be taken out and hung
• For the cold-blooded murder of the English
  tongue! (Pygmalion, 109)

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!My Fair Lady by Lerner and Lowe

• An Englishmans way of speaking absolutely
  classifies him.
• The moment he talks he makes some other English
  despise him,
• One common language Im afraid well never get.
• Oh, why cant the English learn to
• Set a good example to people whose English is
  painful to your ears?
• The Scots and the Irish leave you close to tears.
• There even are places, where English completely
  disappears.
• In America, they havent used it for years! (110)
• (Fromkin, Rodman Hyams 2011 40-41)

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!!Exercise 13 English Only vs. Bilingualism

• Discuss Queen Elizabeth Is outlawing of Celtic
  dress, music and traditions
• King James Translation of the Bible into English
  to unite England with Ireland, Wales, Cornwall,
  and Scotland by an English-Only movement
• What about the English-only movement today vs.
  bilingualism?
• (Fromkin, Rodman Hyams 2011 41)

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!!!Animal-Play Web Sites

• ANIMAL POWER MOVES
• http//www.youtube.com/watch?vGkYbFr7dcIs
• CATS VS. DOGS PLAYING
• http//www.youtube.com/watch?v3dugipeVZtE
• ELEPHANTS PLAYING SOCCER
• http//www.youtube.com/watch?v6sP09MejTcA
• ELEPHANT PLAYING SOCCER
• http//www.videovat.com/videos/1419/elephant-socce
  r.aspx

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• I CAN HAS CHEEZBURGER WEB SITE
• http//icanhascheezburger.com/
• LOLCAT BIBLE
• http//www.lolcatbible.com/index.php?titleGenesis
  _1
• PETCENTRIC WEB SITE
• http//www.petcentric.com/article/aspx?C1OID180
  
• TAASP THE ASSOCIATION FOR THE STUDY OF PLAY
• http//www.tasplay.org

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• References
• Aitchison, Jean. Predestinate Grooves Is There
  a Preordained Language Program? (Clark
  560-578).
• Bickerton, Derek. The Continuity Paradox (Clark
  681-695).
• Bolton, W. F. Language An Introduction (Clark,
  61-73).
• Clark, Virginia, Paul Eschholz, and Alfred Rosa.
  Language Readings in Language and Culture, 6th
  Edition. New York, NY St. Martins Press, 1998.
• Daniels, Harvey A. Nine Ideas about Language
  (Clark, 43-60).

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• Emmorey, Karen. Sign Language (Clark 78-94).
• Fromkin, Victoria, Robert Rodman, and Nina Hyams.
  What is Language? An Introduction to Language,
  9th Edition. Boston, MA Thomson Wadsworth, 2011,
  1-42.
• Heny, Jeannine. Brain and Language (Clark,
  634-657).
• Kemp, William, and Roy Smith. Signals, Signs,
  and Words From Animal Communication to Language
  (Clark 658-679).
• Nilsen, Alleen Pace, and Don L. F. Nilsen.
  Encyclopedia of 20th Century American Humor.
  Westport, CT Greenwood, 2000.
• Nilsen, Don L. F., and Alleen Pace Nilsen.
  Language Play An Introduction to Linguistics.
  Rowley, MA Newbury House Publishers, 1978.