Microbiology

1
(Bilingual Course)
Microbiology
Department of Chemistry and Life Science
Lecturer Li Yong ( Email L68116_at_163.com )
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Chapter one The main themes of
microbiology (Introduction to Microbiology)
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Whats on your arm skin?
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chapter outline

• 1.1 The scope of microbiology
• 1.2 The impact of microbes on earth small
  organisms with a giant effect
• 1.3 The general characteristics of microorganisms
• 1.4 The historical foundations of microbioloy
• 1.5 Taxonomy Organizing, Classifying, and Naming
  Microorganisms .

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Key words

• Microbiology/ Immunology/ epidemiology/
  Biotechnology
• bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, algae, and
  helminthes(???)/ taxonomy/ecology/ single-celled
  microorganisms, and even the multicelled microbes
  /Prokaryotes (unicellular) /eukaryotes
  /Eubacteria/Archaea
• Photosynthesis/ decomposition /Genetic
  engineering /bioremediation
• microscope /magnification/

(????)???????????,???????????????
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Some descriptions of different branched of study
within microbiology

• Immunology (??)
• Public health microbiology and epidemiology
  (???????)
• Food microbiology (??????)
• Agricultural microbiology (??)
• Biotechnology (????)

??????????
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Microbial physiology
Microbial genetics
Microbial Morphology
Parasitology
Virology
Branches of Microbiology
Mycology
Protozoology
Bacteriology
Microbial ecology
Microbial taxonomy
Molecular biology
Phycology or Algology
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Our world is populated by invisible
creatures too small to be seen with the unaided
eye. These life forms, the microbes or
microorganisms, may be seen only by magnifying
their image with a microscope.
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question

• Some people think it would be great if scientists
  could wipe out all the microbial bugs!
• Should we do it, and why or why not?
• ????????

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1.2 The impact of microbes on earth small
organisms with a giant effect

• For billions of years microbes have extensively
  shaped the development of the earths habitats
  and the evolution of other life forms
• Microbes can be found nearly everywhere, from
  deep in the earths crust, to the polar ice caps
  and oceans, to the bodies of plants and
  animals....

??????????? ??Habitats ??, evolution ???
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1.2.1 Microbial involvement in energy and
nutrient flow

• microorganisms were photosynthesizing long before
  the first plants appeared. In fact, they were
  responsible for changing the atmosphere of the
  earth from one without oxygen, to one with
  oxygen. Today photosynthetic microorganisms
  (including algae) account for more than 50 of
  the earths photosynthesis, contributing the
  majority of the oxygen to the atmosphere.
• keep the earth in balance is the process of
  biological decomposition and nutrient recycling

????(??)?????????? ?? oxygen ?? decomposition
?? ?? nutrient ????(???????????)
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1.2.2 Human use of microorganisms

• excellent candidates for solving human problems
• Genetic engineering
• bioremediation

????????? ??Candidate ??,???,??? Genetic
engineering ???? bioremediation ????
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• one cant overemphasize the importance of
  microbiology. Society benefits from
  microorganisms in many ways. They are necessary
  for the productions of bread, cheese, beer,
  antibiotics, vaccines, vitamins, enzymes, and
  many other important products. Indeed, modern
  biotechnology rests upon a microbiology
  foundation. Microorganisms are indispensable
  components of our ecosystems. They make possible
  the cycles of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and
  sulfur 1 that take place in terrestrials and
  aquatic systems2. They also are a source of
  nutrients at the base of all ecological food
  chains and webs.

??antibiotics ??? vaccine ?? enzyme ?
indispensable ????? ecosystem ???? 1 C O N S 2
?????
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1.2.3 Infectious diseases and the human condition
??????????(??)??
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• microbes also have harmed humans and disrupted
  society over the millennia. Microbial diseases
  undoubtedly played a major role in historical
  events such as the decline of the Roman Empire
  and the conquest of the New World. In 1347 plague
  and black death struck Europe with brutal force.
  (????)

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???? -?????????

• By 1351.only four years later, the plague had
  killed 1/3 of the population ( about 25 million
  people). Over the next 80 years. The disease
  struck again and again, eventually wiping out 75
  of the European population. Some historians
  believe that this disaster changed the European
  culture and prepared the way for the
  Renaissance(??).

Plague pleig n. ??
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1.3 The general characteristics of microorganisms

• CELLULAR ORGANIZATION (????)
• A NOTE ON VIRUSES (??????)
• MICROBIAL DIMENSIONS HOW SMALL IS SMALL?
  (??????????)
• LIFE-STYLES OF MICROORGANISMS (???????)

???????? Cellular ??? virus ?? Dimension ??
life styles ????
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The Size and Cell Type of Microbes
Most of the bacteria, protozoa, and fungi are
single-celled microorganisms, and even the
multicelled microbes do not have a great range of
cell types. Viruses are not even cells, just
genetic material surrounded by a protein coat and
incapable of independent existence.
????????,????????????????????????,???????,??????
????,??????????????????????????????
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The size and cell type of microbes
Microbe Approximate range of sizes Cell type
Viruses 0.01-0.25µm Acellular
Bacteria 0.1-10µm Prokaryote
Fungi 2µm-gt1m Eukaryote
Protozoa 2-1000µm Eukaryote
Algae 1µm-several meters Eukaryote
???????????????????????????????
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Microbial world
Organisms (living)
Infectious agents (non-living)
Prokaryotes (unicellular)
eukaryotes
viruses
viroids
prions
Eubacteria
Archaea
Algae (unicellular or multicellular)
Fungi (unicellular or multicellular)
Protozoa (unicellular)
Other (multicellular organisms)
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The future of microbiology is bright
Microbiology is one of the most rewarding of
professions, because it gives its practitioners
the opportunity to be in contact with all the
other natural science and thus to contribute in
many different ways to the betterment of human
life.
?????????????????????,????????????? ,???????????
????
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1.4 THE HISTORYICAL FOUNDATIONS OF MICROBIOLOGY
??????? ?????????????????,???????????????????????
?????????????????????,??????????
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NEW words

• Spontaneous(??)fermentation(??)
  Pasteurization?????contamination (??) bacterial
  endospores (????)mortality??? Prophylaxis ??
  agar(??), petri dish(???), media (???)
• bacterial filter(?????) autoclave(???) Kochs
  postulates organic and inorganic matter
  antibiotic penicillin significance(???)
  classification(??), nomenclature(???), and
  identification.

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NEW words

• Staphylococcus aureus ???????
  Lacrobacillus(????)
• Giardia lamblia(???)
• intestinal infection (????)
• Phylogeny ????, ??? Phylogenetic Trees(?????)
• ribosomal (???)ribonucleic acid (rRNA)
  tuberculosis ???
• chloride of lime ???

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The discovery of microorganisms
The spontaneous generation conflict
??????????,?????????????????,????????,????????????
??????????????
The recognition of microbial role in disease
The discovery of microbial effects on organic and
inorganic matter
The development of microbiology in this century
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The Discovery of Microorganism

• Even before microbes were seen, some investigator
  suspected their existence and responsibility for
  disease.(Lucrtius, Roman philosopher,about 98-55
  B.C. and Girolamo Fracastoro(1478-1553),
  physician ????) suggested that disease was caused
  by invisible living creatures.
• The earliest microscopic observations appeared to
  have been made between 1625 and 1630 on bees and
  weevil(???)by the Italian Francesco Stelluti,
  using a microscope probably supplied by Galileo.

?????????
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1.4.1 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MICROSCOPE SEEING
IS BELIVEVING
??????????
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Antony van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723)
Antony van Leeuwenhoek was an unlikely
scientistHolland, he came from a family of
tradesmen, earned his living as a draper(???) and
haberdasher(dealer of mens clothing and
accessories(????????) had no fortune, received no
higher education or university degrees, and knew
no languages other than his native Dutch. This
would have been enough to exclude him from the
scientific community of his time completely.
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Yet with skill, diligence, an endless curiosity,
and an open mind free of the scientific dogma(??)
of his day, Leeuwenhoek succeeded in making some
of the most important discoveries in the history
of biology. It was he who discovered bacteria,
free-living and parasitic microscopic
protests(????), sperm cells, blood cells,
microscopic nematodes(??) and rotifers(??), and
much more. His researches, which were widely
circulated, opened up an entire world of
microscopic life to the awareness of scientists.
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lens
Object being viewed
A drawing of one of the microscopes showing the
lens a mounting pin b and focusing screws c and
d.
adjusting
screws
Leeuwenhoeks drawings of bacteria from the human
mouth.
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Leeuwenhock spend much of his spare time
constructing simple microscope composed of
double convex glass lenses held between two
silver plates. his simple microscope could
amplify the object being viewed 50 300 times.
Between 1673-1723, he wrote a series of letters
to the Royal Society of London describing the
microbes he observed from the samples of
rainwater, and human mouth.
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• . . my work, which I've done for a long time, was
  not pursued(??) in order to gain the praise I now
  enjoy, but chiefly from a craving(??) after
  knowledge, which I notice resides in me more than
  in most other men. And therewithal(???), whenever
  I found out anything remarkable, I have thought
  it my duty to put down my discovery on paper, so
  that all ingenious people might be informed
  thereof(??).

Antony van Leeuwenhoek. Letter of June 12, 1716
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1.4.2 The Establishment of the Scientific Method
???????????
34
???????????-???
?????
???????
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?????????? Louis Pasteur (1822 1895)
In the field of observation, chance favors only
prepared minds. ------ Louis Pasteur
Louis Pasteur working in his laboratory
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Pasteurs contributions

• Pasteur (1857) demonstrated that lactic acid
  fermentation is due to the activity of
  micro-organisms
• Pasteur (1861) conflict over spontaneous
  generation birth of microbiology as a science
• Pasteur (1881) developed anthrax(???)
  vaccine(??)
• Pasteurization(??????)

??????????????,???.????????,?????????? ???,??????
?????????????????????????? ?????????????????????
????
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The spontaneous generation conflict

• Spontaneous generation that living
  organisms could develop from nonliving or
  decomposing matter.

????,???????,??????????????????.??????????????????
???????????.
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The spontaneous generation conflict-?????????

• Spontaneous generation that living
  organisms could develop from nonliving or
  decomposing matter.
• From earliest time, people had
  believed in spontaneous generation. Even the
  great Aristotle(384-322B.C.) thought some of the
  simpler invertebrates could arise by the
  spontaneous generation. This view finally was
  challenged by Italian physician Francesco
  Redi(1626-1697), who carried out a series of
  experiments on decaying meat and its ability to
  produce maggots spontaneously. Redi placed meat
  in three containers. One was uncovered, a second
  was covered with paper, and the third was covered
  with a fine gauze(??) that would exclude flies.
  What would happen?

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• Flies laid their eggs on the uncovered meat and
  maggot developed. The other two meat did not
  produce maggots spontaneously. However, flies
  were attracted to the gauze-covered container and
  laid their eggs on the gauze these eggs produced
  maggots.
• Thus the generation of maggots by decaying meat
  resulted from the presence of fly eggs, and meat
  did not spontaneously generate maggots as
  previously believed. Similar experiments by
  others helped discredit the theory for large
  organisms.

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• Leeuwenhoeks discovery of microorganisms
  renewed(??) the controversy. Some proposed that
• microbes arose by spontaneous generation even
  though larger organisms did not!
• In 1748 the English priest John Needham
  (1713-1799) boiled mutton broth and then
  tightly stoppered(?) the flasks(???). Eventually
  many of the flasks became cloudy and contained
  microorganisms. He thought organic matter
  contained a vital force that could confer the
  properties of life on nonliving matter.

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• A few years later the Italian priest and
  naturalist Lazzaro Spallanzani( 1729-1799)
  improved on Needhams experimental design by
  first sealing glass flasks that contained water
  and seeds.
• The supporter of spontaneous generation
  maintained that heating the air in sealed flasks
  destroyed it ability to support life!

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If you are one of these scientists who would not
believe in Spontaneous generation theory, and
was involved in this controversial topic, what
are you about to do?
Several investigators attempted to counter such
arguments.
Theodore Schwann(1810-1882) allowed air to enter
a flask containing a sterile nutrient solution
after the air had passed through a red-hot tube.
The flask remained sterile. Subsequently Geoge
Friedrich Schroder and theodor von Dushch allowed
the air to enter a flask of heat-sterilized
medium after it had passed through sterile cotton
wool. No growth occurred in the medium even
though the air had not been heated.
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• Despite those experiments the French naturalist
  Felix Pouchet claimed in 1859 to have carried out
  experiments conclusively proving that microbial
  growth could occur without air contamination(??).
  
• This claim provoked Louis Pasteur(1822-1895) to
  settle the matter once for all.

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The flasks openings were freely open to the air
but were curved so that gravity would cause any
airborne dust particles to deposit(??)in the
lower part of the necks.
Pasteurs swan neck flasks used in his
experiments on the spontaneous generation of
microorganisms
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Conclusion Microorganisms are not spontaneously
generated from inanimate matter, but are produced
by other microorganisms.
The English physicist John Tyndall dealt a final
blow to spontaneous generation in 1877 by
demonstrating that dust did indeed carry germs
and that if dust was absent, broth remained
sterile even if directly exposed to air. During
the course of his studies. Tyndall provided
evidence for the existence of exceptionally
heat-resistant forms of bacteria. Working
independently, the German botanist Ferdinand
Cohn(18281898) discovered the existence of
heat-resistant bacterial endospores(??).
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1.4.3 The Development of Medical Microbiology

• The discovery of spores and sterilization
• The development of aseptic techniques
• The discovery of pathogens and the germ theory of
  disease

?????????
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The Discovery of Spores and Sterilization

• ??????John Tyndall (1820-1893)?1877??????
• ????????????,????????????,?????????????????some
  of the microbes in the dust and air have very
  high heat resistance and the particularly
  vigorous treatment is required to destroy them.
• Ferdinand Cohn a German botanist (??????)
• ???????,??????????,????????????
• ????????(sterile completely free of all life
  forms including spores and viruses.)???????????

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• The importance of microorganisms in disease was
  not immediately obvious to people, and it took
  many years for scientist to establish the
  connection between microorganisms and illness.

???????????????????????,??????????????????????????
???????????????????????????
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The Development of Aseptic Techniques

• ??????????????????????,?? poisonous
  vapors(??)???????4???????????(?????????????????
  ????????)?
• ?19???,???????????(replaced by the knowledge and
  sometimes even the fear of germs)
• Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes the American physician
  and Hugarian Dr. Ignaz Semmelweis ???????????

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• Ignaz Semmelweis, a Hungarian(???)
  physician(????) working in Vienna(???), made the
  first breakthrough in the true nature of disease.
  He found that women became infected in the
  maternity ward (??) after examinations by
  physicians coming directly from the autopsy
  room(???). He realized that asepsis(????) in
  maternity wards could prevent the transmission of
  childbirth fever from patient to patient.
• He therefore instigated a policy for all
  attending physicians to wash their hands with
  chloride of lime (a mixture of calcium chloride
  hypochlorite(????), CaCl(OCl) calcium
  hypochlorite, Ca(OCl)2 and calcium chloride,
  CaCl2) between patients. This innovation dropped
  the mortality rate from 18 to 2.4.
• ------1994??????????????????
  (Childbed Fever A Scientific Biography of Ignaz
  Semmelweis)?

Doctors! wash your hands, please!!
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• Ignaz became a vigorous proponent of his ideas,
  but the Hungarian doctor's efforts were opposed
  by many who could not accept that physicians
  themselves could be responsible for spreading
  bacterial infection. Ridicule of his idea caused
  him to move from Vienna to pest, Hungary and .

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• Before his death he published his ideas in a
  paperThe cause, concept, and prophylaxis of
  childbed fever In 1861. Although the poor
  writing of the paper contributed to the obscurity
  of his ideas, the work was ignored for 17 years,
  which raises an interesting point about the
  culture of science. Radical ideas, even those
  that are correct and can save lives, are
  sometimes ignored. It takes time to overcome the
  dogma of the day.
• ???????????????????

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The Discovery of Pathogens and the Germ Theory of
Disease (??????????????)

• Agostino Bassi 1835?????????????????,?????????????
  ?,???,????????????????1845?M.J.Berkeley???????????
  ???????????
• Joseph Lister ????????????????????????,???????????
  ??????????(?1867??????)?

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Robert Koch (1843 1910)
The recognition of microbial role in
disease ????????(anthrax)?????????????????????
Robert Koch in his laboratory
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• The first demonstration of the role of bacteria
  in the causing disease came from the study of
  anthrax by the Germany physician Robert Koch
  (18431910).
• ??????????????,????????????(18431910)???????
• ???????????????????,??????????20???????????????,??
  ?????????????????????,????????????????????????????
  ??????????,????????.
• ????????????????????????????????????????,?????????
  ?,????????,?????????,?????????????,??????

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• ???????????????????????????,???1884???????????,???
  ?????????
• ??,????????????

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Kochs postulates

• The microorganisms must be present in every case
  of the disease but absent from healthy organisms.

• The suspected microorganisms must be isolated and
  grown in a pure culture.

• The disease must result when the isolated
  microorganisms is inoculated into a healthy host.

• The same microorganisms must be isolated again
  from the diseased host.

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• ?????
• 1.?????????????????,????????????
• 2.???????????????????
• 3.?????????????????,?????????
• 4.????????????????????????

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Kochs demonstration of special organisms cause
special diseases
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• ???????????????????????????????
• ---Recognition of the role of
  microorganisms depended greatly upon the
  development of new techniques for their study.
• ??(Germany, Pasteurs contemporary)???????(????),?
  ????????????????????.
• ??,???????????????????????????????????????

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The Development of Techniques for Studying
Microbial Pathogens

• Isolation of the bacterial pathogens-agar,petri
  dish(???), media (??? suitable for growing
  bacteria from body, use mixture of meat extracts
  and protein digests as nutrient)
• Charles Chamberland constructed a porcelain
  bacterial filter(?????) and autoclave(???)

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• ?????Fannie Eilshemius Hesse, ????????Walther
  Hesse???, ???????????,
• ??????Richard Petri???????(Petri
  dish)???(plate),?????????????? ?????????????(?????
  ????) ????,??????????????????
• ??????????????????,??????????,????????????????????
  ??????? 1882?,????????????????????????30-40??????,
  ????? ??????????????
• 1884?,????????Charles Chamberland
  ????????????,???????????????????????????????????.

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??????????
65
?????????????????????????????(agar) .
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The Golden age of microbiology

• Koch and pure cultures (????????)

• Fermentation and Pasteurization ?? ?????)

• Germ theory of disease (??????)

• Vaccination (??)

??????????????????,???????????????????,???????????
????????????,????????????????????
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The discovery of microbial effects on organic and
inorganic matter (??????)

• The Russian microbiologist Winograsky (??????)
  discovered that soil bacteria could oxidize iron,
  sulfur and ammonia to obtain energy, and also
  isolated nitrogenfixing bacteria.
• Beijerinck made fundamental contributions to
  microbial ecology. He isolated Azotobacter(???)
  and Rhizobium(???).

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Alexander Fleming (1881-1955)
Sir Alexander Fleming discovered the antibiotic
penicillin. He had the insight to recognize the
significance of the inhibition of bacterial
growth in the vicinity of a fungal contaminant.
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(No Transcript)
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• ???(Edward Buchner,??,18601917)
  ?1897?????????????????????????,????????????,??????
  ???????????????,????????????????????

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Important events in the development of
microbiology

• Date Microbiological History
• 1676 Leeuwenhoek discovers
  "animalcules"
• Pasteur shows that lactic acid
  fermentation is due to a
• microorganism
• Pasteur shows that microorganisms do
  not arise by
• spontaneous generation
• 1867 Lister publishes his work on
  antiseptic surgery
• 1869 Miescher discovers nucleic acids
• 1876-1877 Koch demonstrates that anthrax is
  caused by Bacillus
• anthracis
• Laveran discovers Plasmodium, the
  cause of malaria
• 1881 Koch cultures bacteria on gelatin
• Pasteur develops anthrax
  vaccine

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• 1884 Koch's postulates first published
  Metchnikoff describes
• phagocytosis Gram stain developed
• 1887 Petri dish (plate) developed by Richard
  Petri
• Beijerinck isolates root nodule bacteria
• Beijerinck proves that a virus particle
  causes the tobacco
• mosaic disease
• 1921 Fleming discovers lysozyme
• 1923 First edition of Bergey's Manual
• 1928 Griffith discovers bacterial
  transformation
• 1929 Fleming discovers penicillin
• Ruska develops first transmission electron
  microscope
• 1935 Stanley crystallizes the tobacco mosaic
  virus

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• Avery shows that DNA carries
  information during
• transformation Waksman
  discovers streptomycin
• Watson and Crick propose
  the double helix structure
• for DNA
• 1961-1966 Cohen et al use plasmid vectors to
  clone genes in
• bacteria
• 1980 Development of the scanning
  tunneling microscope
• 1983-1984 The polymerase chain reaction
  developed by Mullis
• 1990 First human gene-therapy testing
  begun
• Discovery of Thiomargarita
  namibiensis, the largest
• known bacterium Escherichia
  coli genome sequenced
• Discovery that Vibrio cholerae has
  two separate
• chromosomes
• 20??????????????????????????????1/3???
  ?????????????

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Summary
75
???????????????

• ?????????????????????,??????(Escherichiacoli)????
  ??(Neurosporacassa)?????(Saccharomycescerevisiae)
  ???????(TMV)?T???????
• ?????????????????????????
• ??????????????????????????????????,????????,?????
  ????,???????,????????????,????????,???????,???????
  ,PCR?????,?????????????????,??????????????????????
  ??

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???????????????

• ????????????????????????,?????????,???????????????
  ?
• ???????????????????????????,???????
  ???????????????????,????????????????????
• ????????????????????????,??????????
  ????????,?????????????,??????,??????,??????,??????
  ???,???????,???????????,?? ????????,?????????????
  ??????

What is microorganismization(????)? And what is
model microorganims (?????)?
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1.5 Taxonomy Organizing, Classifying, and Naming
Microorganisms

• 1.8.1 THE LEVELS OF CLASSIFICATION
• 1.8.2 ASSIGNING SPECIFIC NAMES
• 1.8.3 THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF MICROORGANISMS
• 1.8.4 SYSTEMS OF PRESENTING A UNIVERSAL TREE OF
  LIFE
• (?????????)

???????(??)???????
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• Linnaeus (1701-1778), a Swedish botanist(????)
  and nomenclature.
• The primary concerns of taxonomy are
  classification, nomenclature, and identification.

???????????????????
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1.5.1 THE LEVELS OF CLASSIFICATION
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1.5.2 ASSIGNING SPECIFIC NAMES

• Many larger organisms and some species of
  microorganisms (especially pathogens) are also
  called by informal names .(????18?)
• The method of assigning the scientific, or
  specific name is called the binomial (two-name)
  system of nomenclature.

????????????????????????(???)???????????????????
??,?????????????????? ??????????????????????????(?
?)??????
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• Staphylococcus aureus (staf'-i-lo-kok'-us
  ah'-ree-us) Gr. staphule, bunch of grapes,
  kokkus, berry, and Gr. aureus, golden(aureus??????
  ??????). A common bacterial pathogen of humans.
• Campylobacte r (????) jejuni (cam-pee'-loh-bak-ter
  jee-joo'-neye) Gr. kampylos, curved, bakterion,
  little rod, and jejunum(??), a section of
  intestine. One of the most important causes of
  intestinal infection worldwide.

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• Lacrobacillus(????) sanfrancisco
  (lak"-toh-bass-ill'-us san-fran-siss'-koh) L.
  lacto, milk, and bacillus, little rod. A
  bacterial species used to make sourdough bread.
• Vampirovibrio chlorellavorus (vam-py'-roh-vib-ree-
  oh klor-ell-ah'-vor-us) F. vampire(???) L.
  vibrio, curved cell Chlorella, a genus of green
  algae and vorus, to devour(??). A small, curved
  bacterium that sucks out the cell juices of
  Chlorella.
• Giardia lamblia (jee-ar-dee-uh lam-blee-uh)
  ???,????? for Alfred Giard, a French
  microbiologist, and Vilem Lambl, a Bohemian
  physician, both of whom worked on the organism, a
  protozoan that causes a severe intestinal
  infection.

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1.5.3 THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF MICROORGANISMS

• Evolution is an important theme that underlies
  all of biology, including microbiology.
• Evolution is founded on two preconceptions (1)
  that all new species originate from preexisting
  species and (2) that closely related organisms
  have similar features because they evolved from
  common ancestral forms.
• The phylogeny, or evolutionary relatedness, of
  organisms is often represented by a drawing of a
  tree.

??????????????????
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1.5.4 SYSTEMS OF PRESENTING A UNIVERSAL TREE OF
LIFE

• Phylogenetic Trees and the traditional
  Whittaker system of classification
• small ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA), provide
  a "living record" of the evolutionary history of
  an organism. To reflect these relationships, Carl
  Woese and George Fox have proposed a system that
  assigns all organisms to one of three domains,
  each described by a different type of cell (see
  figure 1.16)

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????????
?Saccharomyces cerevisiae??,?????????? Kindom
(?)??? Phyllum (?)??? Class (?)
???? Order(?) ????
Family (?) ???? Genus (?) ???
Species(?)????
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1. ?(species)??????????????????????????????,????
???????????????
???(strain) ??????????????????????????????(??????
?????????????????)???,????????????????????????????
??????????????
?????????????? Escherichia coli B ?
Escherichia coli K12 ??????? ???????????????,???
????????????,??????????????????????????????????!
87
? Subspecies(??)?Variety (??)???????? ???????????
???????????????????,???????????,??????????????????
??????? ?????????,??????????????,?1976??,?????
????????????????????,?????? ?E.coli
k12(???)??????aa?,???????,??k12???aa????,????E.col
i k12????
? Form (?)??????????????????????????????????????
?,???????????????????????????
88
???????????????? ?????????? ??????????
???????????,?????????????????????????????????????
?????????????????????? ???? ??????(?????)???
?????
???,????
??,?????
?????????????????,??,?????,??????????,??????,????
?????? ????????,????,????????,
????????????????????
89
???????? Escherichia coli (Migula)Castellani
et Chalmers 1919 ???????
Staphylococcus aureus Rosenbach 1884
??????????,??????????(?????)?,??????sp.?ssp.(????s
pecies ??????????) ??Saccharomyces sp.
???????????,???????
90
?Strain (??)?????????????????????,?Bacillus
subtilis AS1.389 ASAcademia Sinica
Bacillus subtilis BF7658 BF??
Clostridium acetobutylicum ATCC824
?????? ATCCAmerican Type Culture
Collection?????????? ???????????????,?????????
??13???? ?Escherichia coli ???? E.coli
Staphylococcus aureus???? S. aureus ????????????,
????????????subsp.,?????????(???)? ?
Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. galleria
???????????
91
??

• 1.??????????????????,?????????????????,???????????
  ???????
• 2.???????????,?????????????????,??????????,?????
  ??????????,???????????
• 3.????????????????????
• 4.??????????????,????????????????????,????????,???
  ??????????????,??????????????,?????????????????
• 5. ?????????????????????,???????????,??????????
  ??,????????????????,????????,??????????

92
??

• 6.???????????????????????????????????????????
  ?????????????????????????????????,????????????
• 7.??????????????????????????????,???????????????,?
  ???????????????

93
Questions

• 10.DNA????????????,???????????????,??????,?????
  ????????????
• 11.?????????????????,?????,??????,????????,????
  ?????
• 12.??,????????????,????????,???????????????????
  ????????????????????,?????????
• 13. ????????????,????????????
• 14. 1676?,?????????????????????????
• 15.???????????????????????????????????

94
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.How did Pasteur's famous experiment defeat
the theory of spontaneous generation? 2.How
can Koch's postulates prove cause and effect in a
disease? 3.Who was the first person to use
solid culture media in microbiology? What
advantages do solid media offer for the culture
of microorganisms?
??????????,????????????????????,?????????????????
??
95

• 4.What is the enrichment culture technique
  and why was it a useful new method in
  microbiology?
• 5.When and how Alexander Fleming discovered
  antibiotics?

96
APPLICATION QUESTIONS
1. Pasteur's experiments on spontaneous
generation were of enormous importance for the
advance of microbiology, having an impact on the
methodology of microbiology, ideas on the origin
of life, and the preservation of food, to name
just a few. Explain briefly how the impact of his
experiments was felt on each of the topics listed.
?????????????????,?????????????
97
2. Describe the various lines of proof Robert
Koch used to definitively associate the bacterium
Mycobacterium tuberculosis(?????? )with the
disease tuberculosis. How would his proof have
been flawed if any of the tools he developed for
studying bacterial diseases had not been
available for his study of tuberculosis?
98
References
J.???? ?????? ??????
??? 2002. ?????? ???,????????
??? ??? . 2000 ????? ???,??????? ?
?? ???. 2002 ?????????????
Johnson.case. Laboratory Experiments in
Microbiology.
John P.Harley Lansing M.Prescott Microbiology
3th Edition.
Ronald M.Atlas Clifford Renk Principles of
Microbiology.
Lansing, M. Prescott John, P. Harley and
Donald, A. Klein . 2002. Microbiology, 5th ed.
McGraw-Hill .
Gerard J. Tortora Bardell R. Funke Christine
L. 1998. Case. Microbiology An Introduction , 6th
. Benjamin/Cummings.
Michael, T. Madigan John, M. Martinko and Jack,
Parker. 2003. Brock Biology of Microorganisms ,
10th . Prentice-Hall.
99
Thanks