MACROMINERALS

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MACROMINERALS
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There Are 7 Major Categories of Nutrients
Minerals
Introducing Minerals
Carbohydrates
Proteins
Fats
Fiber
Vitamins
Water
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Minerals are elements that originate in the Earth
and cannot be made by living organisms. They are,
therefore, inorganic. Plants obtain minerals
from the soil, and most of the minerals in our
diets come directly from plants, however this
varies with geographic locale because of soil
mineral content. Some minerals come indirectly
from animal sources.not from the beef of the
cow, but from the milk of the cow. Minerals may
also be present in the water we drink, but this
also varies with geographic locale.
Like vitamins, minerals often serve as coenzymes.
They help protein form enzymes that speed up body
reactions during digestion and metabolism.
Minerals are sturdy nutrients, meaning they will
not be destroyed during most food preparation
methods, although some leach out into the water
used in various cooking methods.
About 17 minerals are considered essential to
humans required for proper functioning and good
health. Those seven needed in amounts of 0.1
gram or more daily are considered major minerals,
or MACROMINERALS.
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Introducing 'sodium' and 'chloride'...
An ion is an atom or group of atoms that carries
a positive or negative electric charge as a
result of having lost or gained one or more
electrons. Sodium is a cation (kat'ion) or a
positively charged ion NA. Chloride is an
anion (an'i'?n) or the negatively charged ion
of chlorine Cl. Together they form SALT.
Sodium and chloride are essential macrominerals.
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Sources of sodium and chloride...
Approximately 75 of your daily salt intake in
the U.S. comes from processed and manufactured
foods. The remaining 25 comes naturally in foods
and from adding salt to foods at the table.
The lowest salt intakes are associated with diets
that emphasize unprocessed foods, especially
fruits, vegetables, and legumes.
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Functions of sodium and chloride...
Absorption of sodium in the small intestine plays
an important role in the absorption of chloride,
proteins (amino acids), carbohydrates (glucose),
and water. Chloride, in the form of hydrochloric
acid (HCl), is also an important component of
gastric juice, which aids the digestion and
absorption of many nutrients. Sodium also helps
the body to retain water and prevent dehydration,
and may have some activity as an antibacterial.
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Endocrine glands, such as the pituitary, thyroid,
adrenals, and pancreas work with the kidneys to
regulate sodium levels. They sense changes in
blood pressure and volume. Blood pressure is a
measure of the force blood exerts on the walls of
blood vessels.
When blood pressure is low, the kidneys hold onto
sodium and the body responds by holding onto
water. This increases blood volume and blood
pressure. When blood pressure is high, the
kidneys release sodium, and the result is water
loss in the body. Blood volume and blood pressure
decrease.
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External functions...
Sodium has functions that go beyond dietary
benefits. Salt has a reputation as a germ killer.
Some people use a sodium solution as an
antibacterial mouthwash to combat microorganisms
that cause sore throats or inflamed gums. Plain
saltwater soaks have also been recommended as a
remedy for sweaty feet. Saltwater soaks have
been used by some to relieve sore or aching
muscles and even appear to have some therapeutic
value in treating arthritis. Salt is believed to
have a drying effect by soaking up excess
perspiration.
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Sodium and chloride are electrolytes...
Sodium and chloride are electrolytes, meaning
they are the positively and negatively ionized
salts in body fluids, primarily those outside the
cells including blood plasma. When sodium is
dissolved in bodily fluids, its mild electrical
charge is necessary for normal functioning of
nerve transmissions and muscle contractions.
Sodium works hand-in-hand with another mineral,
potassium, to maintain the concentration and pH
(alkalinity and acidity) balance of intra- and
extra-cellular fluids. This balance is referred
to as membrane potential, and will be discussed
in the section of this lesson on potassium.
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Recommended daily allowance...
The AI or Adequate Intake Level for adolescents
and adults ages 14-50 years is 1.5 g sodium or
3.8 g salt per day for males and females, based
on the amount needed to replace losses through
sweat in moderately active people and to achieve
a diet that provides sufficient amounts of other
essential nutrients .
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Foods high in sodium and salt...
Food Serving Sodium (g) Salt (g)
Hot dog, beef 1 0.51 1.3
Dill pickle 1 spear 0.30 0.8
Fish sandwich w/ tartar sauce 1 sandwich 0.94 2.4
Ham 3 oz. 1.0 2.5
Pretzels 10 (2 oz.) 1.0 2.5
Chicken Noodle Soup (canned) 1 cup 1.4 3.4
Macaroni Cheese (canned) 1 cup 1.3 3.3
Potato Chips 8 oz. bag 1.2 3.0
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Foods low in sodium and salt...
Food Serving Sodium (g) Salt (g)
Olive oil 1 tbsp. 0.000 0.000
Orange juice from frozen concentrate 8 oz. glass 0.000 0.000
Fruit cocktail, canned 1 cup 0.009 0.023
Carrot 1 medium 0.042 0.105
Tomato 1 medium 0.006 0.015
Potato Chips, unsalted 8 oz. bag 0.018 0.045
Popcorn, air-popped unsalted 1 cup 0.001 0.003
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Deficiencies of sodium and chloride...
Sodium and chloride deficiencies do not generally
result from inadequate dietary intake, even in
those on very low-salt diets. Children with
cystic fibrosis have increased sodium and
chloride concentrations in their sweat.
Hyponatremia (hi'po-n?-tre'me-?) is the
deficiency of sodium levels in the blood. It may
result from excessive water intake or fluid
retention, or if losses from heavy sweating are
not replaced. Conditions that increase the loss
of sodium and chloride include severe or
prolonged vomiting or diarrhea, excessive and
persistent sweating, the use of some diuretics,
and some forms of kidney disease. Symptoms of
hyponatremia include headache, nausea, vomiting,
muscle cramps, twitching or weakness, fatigue,
memory loss, lack of concentration,
disorientation, and fainting.
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Acute or severe hyponatremia has been recognized
as a potential problem in individuals competing
in very long endurance exercise events such as
marathons or Ironman triathlons. It has been
speculated that the use of non-steroidal
anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) used for joint
and muscle pain may increase the risk of
exercise-related hyponatremia by impairing water
excretion even if fluid intake is modest. 
Aspirin Clinoril (sulindac) Daypro (oxaprozin)
Feldene (piroxicam) Indocin (indomethacin)
Lodine (etodolac) Meclomen (meclofenamate)
Mobic (meloxicam) Motrin, Advil (ibuprofen)
Aleve, Anaprox, Naprelan, Naprosyn (naproxen
sodium) Orudis (ketoprofen) Relafen
(nabumetone) Tolectin (tolmetin sodium)
Voltaren, Arthrotec (diclofenac)
Partial list of common NSAIDS
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Overdoses
of sodium and chloride...
Recent surveys have found that the average
dietary salt intake in the U.S. is 7.8-11.8
grams/day for adult men and 5.8-7.8 grams/day for
adult women and those did NOT include salt added
to food at the table. This exceeds the 3.8 grams
recommended per day and the 5.8 grams that is
considered the maximum safe intake level. Excess
sodium can increase the risk of edema (swelling,
particularly in joints, caused by an accumulation
of fluids) and high blood pressure.
Hypernatremia is an abnormally high blood plasma
sodium level developed from excess water loss,
and frequently accompanied by an impaired thirst
mechanism or lack of access to water. Symptoms of
hypernatremia may include dizziness or fainting,
low blood pressure, and diminished urine
production.
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Introducing potassium...
Like sodium, potassium is a cation K This
positively charged ion is in the fluid inside the
cell, while sodium (NA) was the principal cation
in the fluid outside of the cell.
Internal fluid
Internal fluid
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Sources of potassium...
The richest sources of potassium are fruits and
vegetables and nuts. Examples 1 banana contains
422 mg., 1 baked potato with skin contains 926
mg., ½ cup of raisins contain 598 mg., 1 medium
tomato contains 292 mg., 1 oz. almonds contain
200 mg.
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Step 5 of the metabolic process...
Do you remember step 5 of the metabolic process?
Potassium and sodium chloride are two of the
primary elements in this step.
ATP transports the energy
Energy
The energy cannot get to the part of the
cell it needs to without assistance. It has to be
transported in a vehicle called Adenosine
(?-den'?-sen') Triphosphate ATP.
Phosphate
Phosphate
Enzyme
Energy
Phosphate
Phosphate
Phosphate
Phosphate
Phosphate
Phosphate
Energy
Energy
Reaching its destination, enzymes break off the
extra phosphate releasing large amounts
of energy.
ADP adenosine diphosphate picks up the energy
Then the ADP picks up another free floating
phosphate, and becomes ATP.
Phosphate
Phosphate
The ADP returns to pick up more energy and
phosphates.
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Functions of potassium...
Potassium concentrations are about 30 times
higher inside than outside cells, while sodium
concentrations are more than ten times lower
inside than outside cells. The concentration
differences between potassium and sodium across
the cell membranes create an electrochemical
gradient or balance known as the membrane
potential. Potassium helps maintain membrane
potential.
Inside the cell
Enzyme pump or gate
Semi-permeable cell membrane
Potassium molecules
Sodium chloride molecules
Free-floating phosphate used to make ATP energy
Outside the cell
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A cell's membrane potential or balance is
maintained by ion pumps in the cell membrane,
especially the sodium, potassium-ATPase pumps
Na/KATPase . (the suffix ase indicates an
enzyme and is pronounced ace) Potassium and
sodium serve as co-enzymes, with protein, to form
an ion pump in the cell membrane.
Enzyme
Phosphate
Phosphate
Phosphate
Energy
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As sodium is pumped out of the cell in exchange
for potassium, the enzyme pumps release or use
ATP (energy). Their activity has been estimated
to account for 20-40 of the resting energy
expenditure in a typical adult.
Phosphate
Enzyme
Energy
Phosphate
Phosphate
The large proportion of energy dedicated to
maintaining sodium/potassium concentration
gradients emphasizes the importance of this
function in sustaining life.
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When sodium chloride and potassium are dissolved
in bodily fluids, they have a mild electrical
charge. For this reason, they are called
ELECTROLYTES. In the correct balance, these
fluids are necessary for normal functioning of
nerve transmissions and muscle contractions.
A beverage called an electrolyte solution
simply means that it contains a good balance of
sodium chloride and potassium, as well as other
electrolytes such as magnesium and calcium.
Pedialyte is a brand name example, often given to
children with diarrhea. Gatorade is a brand name
example, often given to adults involved in heavy
exercise who are sweating profusely.
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Recommended daily allowance...
The adequate intake level (AI) for potassium is
based on intake levels that have been found to
lower blood pressure, reduce salt sensitivity,
and minimize the risk of kidney stones.
Adolescents and adults, both male and female,
need 4.7 grams or 4,700 milligrams per day.
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Potassium deficiencies...
An abnormally low plasma potassium concentration
is referred to as hypokalemia, and is most
commonly a result of prolonged vomiting, the use
of some diuretics, overuse of laxatives, anorexia
nervosa or bulimia, alcoholism, some forms of
kidney disease and metabolic disturbances.
Symptoms include fatigue, muscle weakness and
cramps, and intestinal paralysis, which may lead
to bloating, constipation, and abdominal pain.
Severe hypokalemia may result in muscular
paralysis or abnormal heart rhythms (cardiac
arrhythmias) that can be fatal.
Black licorice candy contains a compound that
increases urinary excretion of potassium. Use
caution in habitually eating large amounts.
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Overdoses of potassium...
Abnormally elevated serum potassium
concentrations are referred to as hyperkalemia.
Symptoms of hyperkalemia may include tingling of
the hands and feet, muscular weakness, and
temporary paralysis. The most serious
complication of hyperkalemia is the same as
hypokalemia the development of an abnormal heart
rhythm (cardiac arrhythmia), which can lead to
cardiac arrest.
The greatest risks of potassium overdose is with
a drug interaction, or in taking potassium
supplements. Gastrointestinal symptoms are common
side effects of potassium supplements, including
nausea, vomiting, abdominal discomfort, and
diarrhea. Intestinal ulceration has also been
reported, especially when potassium chloride
supplements have been taken without food.
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Potassium and drug interactions...
Potassium levels are often affected by
over-the-counter and prescription drugs.
Individuals with abnormal kidney function or on
certain medications should be closely monitored.
Common side effects of high blood pressure
medications are increased frequency of urination
and increased urinary excretion of potassium.
Common medications affecting
potassium levels
include Anti-coagulants

High-dose antibiotics

Decongestants

Cardiac and blood pressure medications

Diuretics NSAIDS (non-steroid anti-inflammatory
drugs)
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Introducing calcium...
Calcium (Ca) is the most common mineral in the
human body. About 99 of the calcium in the body
is found in bones and teeth, while the other 1
is found in the blood and soft tissue.
Calcium levels in the blood and fluid surrounding
the cells (extracellular fluid) must be
maintained within a very narrow concentration
range for normal physiological functioning. The
physiological functions of calcium are so vital
to survival that the body will de-mineralize bone
to maintain normal blood calcium levels when
calcium intake is inadequate.
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Sources of calcium...
Dairy products contain high levels of absorbable
calcium, and provide nearly 75 of the calcium in
American diets.
Calcium rich plants in the kale family (such as
broccoli, bok choy, cabbage, mustard, and turnip
greens) contain calcium that is as absorbable as
that in milk, but also contain some food
components that have been found to inhibit the
absorption of calcium. Oxalic (ok-sal'ik)
acid, also known as oxalate, is the most potent
inhibitor of calcium absorption and is found at
high concentrations in spinach and rhubarb and
somewhat lower concentrations in sweet potatoes
and dried beans.
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Recommended daily allowance...
Recommended Adequate Intake
Male and Female Age Calcium (mg/day) Tolerable Upper Intake Level
0 to 6 months 210
7 to 12 months 270
1 to 3 years 500 2,500 mg/day
4 to 8 years 800 2,500 mg/day
14 to 18 years 1300 2,500 mg/day
19 to 50 years 1000 2,500 mg/day
51 years 1200

Average dietary intakes of calcium in the U.S.
are well below the adequate intake (AI)
recommendation for every age and gender group,
especially in females. Only about 25 of boys and
10 of girls ages 9 to 17 are estimated to meet
the AI recommendations.
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Functions of calcium...
Calcium is a major structural element in bones
and teeth. Bone is a tissue that is remodeled
throughout life. Bone cells called osteoclasts
begin the process of remodeling by dissolving or
resorbing bone. Bone-forming cells called
osteoblasts then synthesize new bone to replace
the bone that was resorbed. During normal growth,
bone formation exceeds bone resorption. A
condition known as osteoporosis may result
when bone resorption chronically exceeds
formation.
Calcium also plays a significant role in the
secretion of hormones such as insulin and as a
cofactor with vitamin K for clotting blood.
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Calcium levels in the blood must be maintained in
precise balance in order for all physiological
functioning to take place, such as regulating
the constriction and relaxation of blood vessels,
nerve impulse transmission, and muscle
contraction.
PHT ( parathyroid hormone) secreted from the
parathyroid glands and calcitonin secreted from
the thyroid gland regulate the amount of calcium
either deposited into bone from the diet or
stripped from the bone when deficiencies exist.
Vitamin D is necessary to balance the calcium
levels in the blood. Vitamin D is a component
of the diet (extra is added to cereals and dairy
products) but is also synthesized in the skin in
the presence of sunlight. It stimulates calcium
absorption from the small intestine and
mobilization of calcium from bone, both serving
to reverse a decrease in plasma calcium.
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Calcium absorption from the small intestine and
excretion from the kidneys are regulated to
ensure that the concentration of calcium in the
plasma is very precisely balanced in a state of
homeostasis.
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Calcium deficiencies...
A low blood calcium level is rarely due to low
dietary calcium intake since the skeleton
provides a large reserve of calcium. A low
calcium level may be due to abnormal parathyroid
or thyroid function, kidney failure, vitamin D
deficiency, or
low
magnesium levels.
Magnesium levels
influence the functioning
of osteoclasts and
osteoblasts.
A chronically low calcium intake in growing
individuals may prevent the attainment of optimal
peak bone mass. Once peak bone mass is achieved,
inadequate calcium intake may contribute to
accelerated bone loss and ultimately to the
development of osteoporosis.
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Overdoses of calcium...
Abnormally elevated blood calcium (hypercalcemia)
resulting from the over consumption of calcium
has never been documented to occur from foods,
only from calcium supplements and usually when
calcium supplements are taken in combination with
antacids. Mild hypercalcemia may be without
symptoms or may result in loss of appetite,
nausea, vomiting, constipation, abdominal pain,
dry mouth, thirst, and frequent urination. More
severe hypercalcemia may result in confusion,
delirium, coma, and if not treated, death.
Only the calcium listed as elemental in
supplements is absorbable by the body. Calcium is
best absorbed in an acidic environment, hence
calcium citrate is the best absorbed supplemental
form of calcium and can be taken on an empty
stomach. Calcium carbonate is alkaline based, it
requires extra stomach acid for better
absorption, and is best taken right after meals
or with a glass of acidic juice such as orange
juice.
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Approximately 12 of the U.S. population will
have a kidney stone at some time. Most kidney
stones are composed of calcium oxalate or calcium
phosphate. Although their cause is usually
unknown, abnormally elevated urinary calcium
(hypercalciuria)
(hi'p?r-kal'se-oo're-?) increases the risk of
developing calcium stones.
The pain from these stones, which have dislodged
and travel through the ureter and urethra tubes,
can be excruciating and incapacitating. Stones
range in size from that of a grain of sand to
pea-size and larger. Stones too large to pass
may have to be broken up with sound waves.
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Introducing phosphorus...
Phosphorus (P) is an essential mineral that is
required by every cell in the body for normal
function. The majority of the phosphorus in the
body is found as phosphate (PO4). Approximately
85 of the body's phosphorus is found in bone and
teeth.
In the bones and teeth, phosphorus combines with
calcium to form calcium phosphate.
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Sources of phosphorus...
Phosphate is found in association with protein,
especially in milk and cheese. Only a few other
foods contain a lot of phosphate like wholegrain
cereals, baking powder, shellfish. Other sources
are convenience foods which have phosphates added
by food manufacturers.
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Recommended daily allowance...
The recommended dietary allowance for phosphorus
is based on the amount needed to adequately meet
cellular and bone formation needs.
Life stage Age Males (mg/day) Females (mg/day)
Adolescents 14-18 yrs of age 1,250 1,250
Adults 19 yrs and older 700 700
Some foods that are high in phosphorus include
8 oz. skim milk has 247 mg., 3 oz. cooked salmon
has 252 mg., 1 oz. peanuts have 107 mg., 3 oz.
turkey or beef has 173 mg., 1 egg has 104 mg., 1
oz. mozzarella cheese has 131 mg.
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Combined with calcium as calcium phosphate, the
phosphorus builds strong bones and teeth.
Functions of phosphorus...
Phosphorus binds with lipids to form cell
membranes.
Lipid/ phosphorus layers shown in orange
Nucleic acids, the DNA and RNA which are
responsible for the storage and transmission of
genetic information, are long chains of
phosphate-containing molecules as shown here in
blue spheres.
Phosphorus serves the body as a buffer. As
such, it helps maintain the pH of a system to
absorb specific ions and become more acidic or
alkaline.
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Step 5 of the metabolic process...
Once again, do you remember step 5 of the
metabolic process? Phosphate is a component of
the ADP and ATP that helps carry and release
energy.
ATP transports the energy
Energy
The energy cannot get to the part of the
cell it needs to without assistance. It has to be
transported in a vehicle called Adenosine
(?-den'?-sen') Triphosphate ATP.
Phosphate
Phosphate
Enzyme
Energy
Phosphate
Phosphate
Phosphate
Phosphate
Phosphate
Phosphate
Energy
Energy
Reaching its destination, enzymes break off the
extra phosphate releasing large amounts
of energy.
ADP adenosine diphosphate picks up the energy
Then the ADP picks up another free floating
phosphate, and becomes ATP.
Phosphate
Phosphate
The ADP returns to pick up more energy and
phosphates.
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Phosphorus deficiencies...
Inadequate phosphorus intake results in
abnormally low blood phosphate levels
(hypophosphatemia).
The effects of hypophosphatemia may include loss
of appetite, anemia, muscle weakness, bone pain,
rickets (in children), osteoporosis (in adults),
increased susceptibility to infection, numbness
and tingling of the extremities, difficulty
walking, and death in severe cases.
Fractures due to osteoporosis may not show up for
years following chronic deficiencies.
Because phosphorus is so widespread in food,
dietary phosphorus deficiency is usually seen
only in cases of near-total starvation. Other
individuals at risk of hypophosphatemia include
alcoholics and some diabetics.
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Overdoses of phosphorus...
The most serious adverse effect of abnormally
elevated blood levels of phosphate
(hyperphosphatemia) is the calcification of
non-skeletal tissues. Calcium phosphate deposits
can lead to organ damage, especially when the
calcified deposits are in the kidney in the form
of kidney stones. The upper tolerable limit is
4,000 mg/day.
Abnormal and even painful calcium phosphate
deposits can appear on joints and teeth, and
appear on Xrays.
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Introducing magnesium...
Magnesium (Mg) plays important roles in the
structure and the function of the human body. The
adult human body contains about 25 grams of
magnesium. Over 60 of all the magnesium in the
body is found in the skeleton, about 27 is found
in muscle, 6 to 7 is found in other cells, and
less than 1 is found outside of cells.
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Sources of magnesium...
Because magnesium is part of chlorophyll, the
green pigment in plants, green leafy vegetables
are rich in magnesium. Unrefined grains and nuts
also have high magnesium content. Meats and milk
have an intermediate magnesium content, while
refined foods generally have the lowest magnesium
content. Water is a variable source of intake
harder water usually has a higher concentration
of magnesium salts.
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Functions of magnesium...
Phosphate
Magnesium is involved in more than 300 essential
metabolic reactions. It functions to help ADP
pick up the third phosphate moleculebecoming ATP.
Phosphate
Phosphate
Energy
Then the ADP picks up another free floating
phosphate, and becomes ATP.
Magnesium is required for the active transport of
ions like potassium and calcium across cell
membranes. Through its role in ion transport
systems, magnesium affects the conduction of
nerve impulses, muscle contraction, and normal
heart rhythm.
Magnesium plays a structural role in bone, cell
membranes, ribosomes, and chromosomes. It helps
teeth retain calcium.
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Deficiencies of magnesium...
Because magnesium is found in ample supplies in
many foods, and because the kidneys can limit
excretion of this mineral when supplies are low,
deficiencies are rare. Conditions that may
increase the risk of a deficiency include
gastrointestinal disorders, renal disorders,
alcoholism, and old age.
When magnesium deficiencies do exist
(hypomagnesemia), the symptoms include rapid
demineralization of bone, retention of sodium,
low potassium levels, muscle spasms, loss of
appetite, nausea, vomiting, insomnia, mood swings
and personality changes.
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Recommended daily allowance and overdoses...
While there have not been any adverse effects
associated with dietary magnesium, a Tolerable
Upper Intake Level (UL) for supplemental
magnesium has been determined. Adolescents and
adults should not exceed 350 mg. intake per day
of supplemental magnesium.
The initial symptom of excess magnesium
supplementation is diarrhea. Elevated serum
levels of magnesium (hypermagnesemia) may result
in low blood pressure. Some of the later effects
of magnesium toxicity, such as lethargy,
confusion, disturbances in normal cardiac rhythm,
and deterioration of kidney function, are related
to the severe low blood pressure. As
hypermagnesemia progresses, muscle weakness and
difficulty breathing may occur, and eventually
cardiac arrest.
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Sulfur (S) is an essential mineral. It is a
component of numerous compounds that play a
variety of essential functions in the body. No
recommended daily allowance has been set for this
mineral, although 800-1,000 mg/day is suggested
for individuals 18 yrs and older.
Introducing sulfur...
Sulfur compounds act as structural entities
(connective tissues such as collagen), part of
hair, skin, and nails, as catalysts (enzymes), as
oxygen carriers (hemoglobin), as hormones
(insulin), and as vitamins (thiamine and biotin).
Sulfur is present in four amino acids. It
interferes with copper storage.
No deficiencies or toxicity symptoms have been
specifically noted. The use of sulfur supplements
(MSM or methylsulfonylmethane) have produced
diarrhea, flatulence, bloating, and a burning
sensation in the stomach.
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Sources of sulfur...
Although sulfur is found in most protein foods,
the top three foods containing this mineral are
eggs, onions, and garlic. Sulfur content is
responsible for their characteristic odors.
Sulfur is often used as a homeopathic
(non-traditional medical practices) remedy. It is
often prescribed for internal cleansing and for
skin ailments.
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THE END
MACROMINERALS