Political Order in the 18th Century

1
Political Order in the 18th Century

• Of States, Enlightened Despots and Armies

2
Europe in 18th Century

• 1715 1789 the final phase of the European old
  order
• 1715 end of reign of Louis XIV
• 1789 start of French Revolution
• Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment new
  intellectual order based on rationalism and
  secularism
• Political, social, economic and demographic
  trends ushered a modern new order in Europe

3
Enlightened Absolutism?

• Can a ruler with absolute powers be enlightened?
• Idea of natural rights
• Equality before the law
• Freedom of religious worship
• Freedom of speech and press
• Right to assemble and hold property
• How should these natural rights be established
  and preserved?
• Montesquieu, The Spirit of the Laws separation
  of powers
• Rousseau, The Social Contract democracy and
  general will
• Idea of enlightened ruler who would
• Allow religious toleration, freedom of speech,
  right to private property
• Foster the arts, sciences and education
• Obey the laws instead of ruling arbitrarily and
  enforcing them equally for all subjects
• The enlightened ruler offered the best hope for
  social reforms
• Frederick The Great II of Prussia
• Catherine the Great of Russia
• Joseph II of Austria-Hungary

4
A Survey of the European States

• France of Louis XV
• Duke of Orleans and Cardinal Fleury as regents
• Expansion of commerce, trade and industry
• 1743, direct rule by Louis XV
• Madame de Pompadour
• Rule ended with mounting public debt, loss of
  French territories (colonies), heavy taxes and a
  hungry population
• Louis XVI (1774 1792) indecisive, weak and
  ineffectual ruler and Marie Antoinette, queen

5
A Survey of the European States

• Prussia of Frederick William I
• Evolution of civil bureaucracy the General
  Directory
• Role of Junkers, the landed aristocracy in the
  military
• Prussia under Frederick II the Great
• One of the best educated and cultured monarchs
• Well-versed in Enlightenment thought
• Established a single code of law that abolished
  the use of torture except in cases of treason and
  murder
• Granted limited freedom of speech and full
  religious toleration
• BUT he was a conservative at heart
• Expanded the Prussia army and led it into wars
  the Austrian War of Succession and the Seven
  Years War which saw Prussian dominance over
  Silesia, a part of the Austrian-Hungarian Empire

6
A Survey of the European States

• Hapsburg Austria-Hungary
• Maria-Theresa (1740 1780) and reforms after
  loss of Silesia in the Austrian War of Succession
• Reforms sought to strengthen position of the
  Hapsburg monarchy
• She was staunchly Catholic and conservative
• Joseph II and his far-reaching reform program
• Abolished serfdom and gave peasants hereditary
  rights to their holdings
• Abandoned economic restraints such as monopolies,
  trade barriers and guild restrictions
• Instituted a new penal code that abolished death
  penalty and instituted equality before the law
• Introduced complete religious toleration and
  restricted the Catholic Church
• Effects of his reforms
• Alienated nobility and Church, confused the
  peasantry
• Alienated non-German nationalities with his
  attempt to impose German as working official
  language

7
A Survey of the European States

• Russia of Catherine the Great (1762 1796)
• German wife of Peter III, counted Diderot and
  Voltaire among her correspondents
• Claimed wish to reform Russia but knew she could
  not alienate the nobility
• 1767, called for election of an assembly to
  debate on new penal code
• In her Instructions, she questioned institutions
  of serfdom, torture and capital punishment
• Nothing came out of the negotiations
• Land policies favored the aristocrats
• Nobility became more involved in local government
• 1785 Charter of Nobility
• Repression of serfdom

8
Enlightened Absolutism Revisited

• Enlightened absolutism relationship between
  ideas of Enlightenment and practicalities of
  government
• Of the three rulers, only Joseph II sought
  radical reforms based on Enlightenment ideals
• Catherine and Frederick were more motivated by
  political necessities
• Their reforms, even though subscribing to
  Enlightened thought, sought ultimately to
  strengthen the power of the state
• The hands of the so-called absolute monarchs
  were also tied by the presence and vested
  interests of the nobility upon whom their power
  base rested

9
War and Diplomacy

• System of Balance of Power
• Five major powers Britain, France,
  Austria-Hungary, Prussia and Russia
• War of Austrian Succession (1740 1748)
• War involving all the major powers in Europe
• Prussia gained territory of Austrian Silesia
• The Seven Years War (1756 1763)
• Britain and Prussia vs Austria, Russia and France
• Fought both in Europe and in the colonies (North
  America)
• Development of the European Army
• Professional standing army became standard
  feature in Europe
• Social hierarchies reflected in army hierarchies
• Change in the conduct of war
• Elaborate maneuvers instead of pitched battles