Lecture IV: STALINISM AS A STATE SYSTEM

1
Lecture IVSTALINISM AS A STATE SYSTEM

• In the framework of the course Crucial Issues of
  Russian Political History from the early XXth
  century up the present time
• Sergey Verigin, Ass. Prof.
• Petrozavodsk State University

2
Contents list

• I. Fight for power in the Bolshevik Party after
  Lenins death. Stalins victory.
• II. Regime of Stalins personal power. 1930s.

3
I. Fight for power in the Bolshevik Party after
Lenins death. Stalins victory.Historical
views of Stalins times.

• Scientific analysis of Stalin's activity in
  Russian historiography began only during
  perestroika, at the end of 1980s. In first works
  dedicated to this problem, an assessment of
  Stalin, given at the XX Congress of the Communist
  Party (1956), was restored.  The essence of it
  was that together with positive moments of
  Stalin's policy, negative facts also took place,
  for example, Stalin's role in organizing mass
  repressions.
• Then assessments of Stalin's activity similar to
  foreign ones (for example, made in works of Koen,
  Konkwest, Deutcher, Boffa, Vert and other) were
  given in the Soviets works of Aphanasyev,
  Gephter, Tsipko and others. A negative assessment
  of Stalin was consequently transferred to the
  period of his ruling, which was called Stalinism,
  totalitarianism of his administrative-command
  system.

4
Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin(1879-1953)
5
Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin(1879-1953)

• Stalin's real surname is Dzhugashvili. He was
  born in Georgia and in 1888 was given to a local
  church school. He excelled there and received a
  scholarship which gave him a possibility to enter
  Tbilisi Theological Seminary in 1894 as a devour
  believer in Russian Orthodox maxims. But in 1899
  when he was just about to graduate he left
  Seminary and started revolutionary activities.
• In 1903-04 Stalin was in Siberian exile for
  staging demonstrations in Georgia. In 1903, when
  Russian Social-Democratic Workers' Party split
  into Bolsheviks and Menshevike he joined the
  former. Before the Revolution of 1917 he was
  several times arrested by imperial police and
  sent to exile, but always managed to escape from
  there, the last time right after the October
  revolution.
• Although Stalin did not play a major role in the
  Octover revolt, he was included into the
  Bolshevik government as commissar of national
  affairs. Stalin was successful in the party
  struggle followed Lenin's death and by 1930
  seized the power in the Soviet Union getting rid
  of all his opponents and competitors. The years
  of Stalin's rule, especially 1937-38, cost the
  USSR thousands of lives. Stalin's mistakes in
  military preparations resulted in the heavy
  situation the Soviet Union found itself in the
  first two years of the Great Patriotic War. After
  the war Stalin was about to continue mass purges
  and only his death in 1953 stopped them.

6
Were there alternatives to Stalin?

• In this discussion some Soviet historians
  acknowledged that Stalin's cult had been a
  natural consequence of socialism as a one-party
  system. There were a great deal of discussions if
  there had been any alternative to Stalinism in
  the Soviet society development. Some historians
  (for example, Latsis, Kozlov, Bord'ygov and
  others) tried to part Stalinism and Leninism, and
  to find out real alternatives to Stalinism in the
  USSR history of 1920s.

7
Were there alternatives to Stalin?

• The possible continuation of a new economic
  policy (NEP) was considered to be another way
  out. Other historians (Klyachkin, Koginov and
  others) proved that there had been no
  alternatives to Stalinism in Russian history. The
  reasons of Stalin's victory were explained
  differently by a difficult international
  situation, Lenins mistakes (he didn't manage to
  stop Stalin). An opinion that Stalin was only
  Marx's and Lenin's student and he had realised
  their ideas in practice also explained the
  situation. That is, Stalinism was considered to
  be a continuation of Marxism.

8
Heterogeneity of the Communist party

• The period of 1920s began for Soviet Russia with
  a severe social-political crisis not only in the
  society (we mentioned in previous lectures about
  people's dissatisfaction with "military communism
  policy"), but in the Communist (Bolsheviks) Party
  as well. There were a lot of different fractions
  and groups.
• In 1921 a resolution "About the Party's unity"
  aimed against Bolsheviks Party's split was passed
  at the X Congress of the Russian Communist Party
  - RCP(b)".

9
Heterogeneity of the Communist party

• When Lenin was alive this resolution was seldom
  used for the struggle against differently minded
  in the party. It didn't mean a cease in the
  discussions about country's and party's
  development. For example, in 1924-1925 Trotskys
  book "October's Lessons" concerning economic
  problems was discussed in the party.

10
Lev Trotskij
11
Preconditions for Stalinism

• In the second half of 1920s Stalin used the
  resolution "About Party's unity" in party
  internal struggle. The result was the exclusion
  of Trotsky and his supporters, his comrades
  Kamenev, Zinovyev and then other Stalin's
  opponents, Bukharin and Rykov from the Bolshevik
  Party.  The political regime was tough when
  Lenin was alive in the beginning of 1920s.
• In 1922 the Central Political Administrative
  Board (GPU - according to the Russian
  abbreviation) so was formed instead of VCiK. Its
  aim was to struggle against counterrevolution.
  The same year an entry of " counterrevolutionary
  crime" was included into the Criminal Code. Any
  action aimed at the overthrow of the Soviet Power
  was considered criminal. 

12
Preconditions for Stalinism

• In 1922 some 47 famous socialist-revolutionaries
  were convicted according this article. This
  process had become the first important political
  process in the Soviet period. In the autumn of
  this year some 160 famous workers of culture and
  science disagreed with Bolshevik policy were
  deported. Such famous philosophers as Berdyaev,
  Bulgakov, Frank were among then. At the beginning
  of 1920s a political process over Mensheviks
  leaders of the party took place. Most of them
  were subjected to repression.
• So, in 1922 Bolsheviks annihilated political
  opposition and one party system was formed. It
  had existed till the end of 1980s. Almost
  everything in the country now depended on a
  situation in the ruling Communist Party.

13
Lenins last days

• In April 1922 Stalin was appointed as the General
  Secretary of the Central Committee of the RCP(b).
  He began to select personnel and to post them.
  The selected personnel were devoted to Stalin. 
• Gradually, Lenin became aware of Stalin's danger
  to the future of the country and party. But he
  was seriously ill and since the end of 1922 he
  couldn't participate in country's governing. And
  at that very time Stalin began to put his plans
  into reality. 
• In 1922-1923, at the end of his life, Lenin, who
  was seriously ill and had no ability to rule the
  country, wrote his last articles and letters,
  which were later called "political will".
• Lenin wrote in those articles about future plans
  concerning the building of socialism in Russia
  strengthening of the ruling party unity,
  strengthening of the Workers and Peasants Union,
  etc. He emphasized the necessity to win peasants
  over to the Soviet power. 
• But Communist party leaders couldn't understand
  the profundity of Lenin's ideas. They paid too
  much attention to the struggle for power.
  Trotsky, Stalin, Kamenev, Zinovyev, and Bukharin
  thought that each of them could replace Lenin.
  Their main aim was to defeat their political
  opponents . They hid Lenin's "Letter to the
  Congress", in which Lenin characterized every
  political leader, from the society.

14
Lenin's last days Vladimir Lenin and his wife
Nadezhda Krupskaja.
15
Anti-Trotsky coalition

• On the eve of Lenin's death, the Thirteenth Party
  Conference published, on Stalin's motion, the
  decision empowering the Central Committee to
  expel Party members for factionalism. At the
  moment the leader died a new sanctity enveloped
  his every word and deed, including this decision,
  in which Lenin had taken part. Simultaneously
  decreed a new recruiting campaign, nominally with
  a view to strengthening the actual worker element
  in Party ranks. Actually Stalin, as general
  secretary, was able to bolster his own influence
  by guiding the Party machinery in selecting new
  members. In a few short weeks nearly a quarter of
  a million men and women were admitted in the new
  "Lenin enrollment."

16
Anti-Trotsky coalition

• At the time of the XIII Party Congress in May
  1924, the economic situation was improving
  sufficiently to enable the triumvirs (Stalin,
  Zinoviev and Kamenev) to call their critics to
  account. Zinoviev openly attacked Trotsky and
  demanded that he retract his "errors." As Stalin
  had only shortly before opposed Zinoviev's demand
  for Trotsky's arrest, he found it wise to remain
  in the background.
• The Congress was unmoved. It promptly took steps
  to discipline the Russian Troskyites, as well as
  dissidents in the other parties of the Comintern.

17
Anti-Trotsky coalition

• Permanent Revolution
• After the XIII Congress, as far as could be seen
  the chief antagonists were Trotsky on the one
  hand and Zinoviev and Kamenev on the other.
• Trotsky restated his old theory of "permanent
  revolution," with its emphasis on the world
  leadership of the proletariat and its implicit
  challenge to the Leninist position on the role of
  the poor peasantry in building socialism.
  "October," said Trotsky, was the crucial stage in
  the history of the Party. "October" meant to him
  the time when Lenin adopted Trotsky's theory of
  permanent revolution--at least in the sense of
  rapid passage from the bourgeois to the socialist
  stage.

18
Anti-Trotsky coalition

• "Socialism in one country
• Stalin offered his theory of "Socialism in one
  country.
• In January 1925 the Central Committee removed
  Trotsky from the War Commissariat, even though he
  remained in uneasy possession of a seat on the
  Politburo. This was the decisive blow. Although
  he was still not completely crushed, Trotsky
  receded to the background.
• Although Trotsky was defeated, Zinoviev and
  Kamenev soon discovered that the victory was not
  theirs. In March 1925 the Fourteenth Conference
  of the Party accepted Stalin's theory of
  "socialism in one country," while Zinoviev and
  Kamenev paid little attention. Soon afterward
  Stalin was able to break up the triumvirate. Too
  late Zinoviev and Kamenev attacked Stalin's new
  theory. By the middle of 1925 he had found new
  allies in Bukharin, Rykov, and Tomsky, who
  accepted "socialism in one country."

19
Stalin vs. Kamenev and Zinovyev

• Rykov had become Lenin's successor as chairman of
  the Council of People's Commissars. Tomsky was
  the leader of the Soviet trade-unions. Bukharin,
  the "Left" Communist of 1918, was now, like Rykov
  and Tomsky, on the "right" and the leader of
  those who felt that the NEP was a success, and
  while indeed socialism might be built in Russia.
  Zinoviev and Kamenev, on the contrary, were
  profoundly uneasy about the continuation of the
  NEP, but they had been abruptly thrust into the
  minority.
• Zinoviev and Kamenev tardily recognized Stalin as
  the man from whom they had most to fear and
  carefully prepared an attack on him for the XIV
  Party Congress, to be held in December 1925.
• However, the plan completely miscarried. As
  reconstituted just after the Congress, the
  Politburo had three new full members Molotov,
  Voroshilov, and Kalinin, all loyal of Stalin's.
  Stalin also added several supporters to the list
  of candidate members of the Politburo.

20
Lenin, Zinovev and Kamenev
21
Anti-Stalin coalition

• In 1926 old opponents (Trotsky and his
  supporters) united with Zinov'év and Kamenev in
  their struggle against Stalin. A united
  opposition tried to win the majority of the party
  over its side and to organise illegal structures.
  But there was no unity among the opposition
  members. Being supported by obedient party
  members, Stalin managed to expel opposition
  leaders from the party and to send his main
  opponent, Trotsky, from Moscow. 
• In his struggle against opposition Stalin broadly
  used the resolution "About Party's Unity", which
  prohibited factions and forced the minority to
  obey the majority. More often Stalin was
  supported by OGPU bodies (that is the State
  Political Administrative Board bodies). Stalin
  used this body in the struggle against his
  opponents.

22
Zinovev , Kamenev and Bukharin
23
Stalins getting rid of Bukharin. NEP policy
suspended

• January 1929 - Trotsky was deported out of the
  USSR in accordance with Stalin's order. After the
  defeat of opponents headed by Trotsky and
  Zinovyev, Stalin didn't need Bukharin's support
  from the society. Since 1928 his disputes with
  Bukharin had been starting. (They were about the
  NEP).
• At the end of 1927 - at the beginning of 1928
  there were serious problems with State grain
  procurements. Peasants, not satisfied with low
  prices on agricultural products, refused to sell
  bread. Bukharin considered that fact to be a
  contradiction of the NEP and urged to find a way
  out on the NEP basis - which is to reach
  understanding with peasants. As for Stalin, he
  considered this information to be a "kulak's"
  sabotage. He called upon for using extreme
  measures - bread confiscation.

24
Stalins getting rid of Bukharin. NEP policy
suspended

• In 1928 Stalin also called upon to abandon the
  NEP and to begin a "big leap " - that is a forced
  industrial and agricultural development. Besides
  he called upon for a wider using of extreme
  measures. Bukharin and his supporters (Rykov - a
  chairman of the SPK of the USSR and Tomsky - a
  Soviet Trade Union leader) tried to protect the
  NEP, they were against extreme measures. Bukharin
  understood that such measures in economy would
  lead to extreme measures in politics. Bukharin's
  struggle against these measures meant a struggle
  against the formation of Stalin's individual
  power.

25
Stalins getting rid of Bukharin. NEP policy
suspended

• But forces were not equal. The party apparatus
  supported Stalin. He seemed a guarantee of
  stability and secured privileges to its members.
  Besides that, Bukharin called upon for the
  realization of reforms, which would it not be
  effective at once.
• In 1929 Stalin managed to discredit Bukharin and
  his supporters, accusing them of the "right wing
  group". In the autumn of 1929 Bukharin's group
  failed. Stalin becomes the only leader in the
  Communist Party.

26
II. Regime of Stalin's personal power. 1930s
First processes and formation of the camp system

• All these events accelerate a process of
  discontinuance of the NEP, and a formation of the
  administrative - command system. Stalin and his
  supporters fabricated a number of processes in
  1930 - a process over the so-called Provision
  (Promyshlennaj) party, and in 1931 a mensheviks
  process. Since the beginning of 1930s closed
  trials followed by extra-judicial punishments
  were organized. The so-called "Troika"s (that is
  groups made up of 3 members) were formed for
  judicial proceedings. 
• Party and State leaders, heads of the District
  Department of the GPU were the members of the
  troikas. At first they accused "kulaks" only, but
  then intelligentsia as well. Since the number of
  convicted persons increased, at the verge of
  1920s 1930s a reorganization of reformatory
  institutions was carried out. Camps were their
  main structures. In 1930 they were transferred to
  the OGPU. A Central Camp Management (GULAG),
  headed by Yagoda, was organized.

27
Central Camp Management (GULAG) an ordinary
working day of GULAGs settlers
28
Toughening of Stalins regime

• In the early1930s Stalin toughened his regime. A
  new term "people's enemy" was used for the first
  time in a resolution of the Central Executive
  Committee and the People's Commissars Council of
  the USSR of August 7, 1932.
• People's enemies could be sentenced to capital
  punishment or 10 years of imprisonment with
  property confiscation.
• In December 1932 a passport regime was
  introduced in the country, which had been earlier
  prohibited by the Soviet government in 1923. 
• In March 1933 OGPU bodies got a right to shoot
  people without trial and investigation.
• At last, on December 1, 1934, the day of Kirov's
  assassination (Kirov was a leader of Leningrad
  Bolsheviks), "the Law of the Procedure of
  Management of Affairs concerning the organisation
  of acts of terrorism" was adopted

29
Sergey Kirov
30
Repressions

• Repression was intensifying at the time when the
  USSR Constitution was adopted in 1936. The Soviet
  Propaganda announced it to be the most democratic
  in the world. The Constitution parts concerning
  people rights, principles of legal proceedings
  were nothing more than a mockery in 1930s.
• The following reasons of the 1930s repressions
  can be mentioned 
• - the necessity to replace as quickly as
  possible people, who got used to work in the
  democratic atmosphere of the NEP, by people
  devoted to Stalin's regime
• - the possibility to explain economic and
  political crises at the end of 1920th by the
  activity of saboteurs and spies
• - the method to force the population work
  effectively without any economic stimulus.

31
Repressions

• Enemy of People
• No segment of society was left untouched
  during the purges. Article 58 of the legal code,
  listing prohibited "anti-Soviet activities", was
  applied in the broadest manner. Initially, the
  execution lists for the enemies of the people
  were confirmed by the Politburo. Over time the
  procedure was greatly simplified and delegated
  down the line of command. People would inform on
  others arbitrarily, to attempt to redeem
  themselves, or to gain small retributions. The
  flimsiest pretexts were often enough to brand
  someone an "Enemy of the People", starting the
  cycle of public persecution and abuse, often
  proceeding to interrogation, torture and
  deportation, if not death.

32
Regime of Stalins personal power. Great Purges
of 1935-38. 

• By the end of 1929 Stalin's victory was absolute.
  The whole political system of the USSR had
  changed.  The regime of Stalins personal power
  was formed.
• The years of 1935-1938 were the top years of
  Stalin's repression. Within this period three
  large political processes over famous political
  leaders were carried out. A possible opposition
  to Stalin in the Red Army was defeated. There
  were purges among industrial leaders and in
  social institutions. The repression was on a
  large-scale. At the end of 1930s the number of
  imprisoned persons in the USSR was about 10-40
  million people.
• It was at the end of 1930s when Stalin's cult
  reached its acme. His name was associated with
  numerous successes in the USSR economy. His
  authority was unshakeable he had no adversaries
  worth mentioning. He was really very popular with
  the Soviet people.

33
Regime of Stalins personal power. Great Purges
of 1935-38

• The results of the purges
• - At least 681,692 people were executed
  during 193738 alone, and only accounting for the
  execution lists signed personally by Stalin from
  archives of NKVD.
• - The exact total of persons affected
  remains uncertain and depends on how the count is
  made, especially depending on the time period
  considered and whether deaths related to the
  Gulag and transportation losses are included.
  Following Kirov's exploited death, it has been
  said that roughly 1.7 million people were
  arrested over the following decade, with nearly
  700,000 executed.
• One of Russia's leading human rights
  groups, the Memorial Society, has released a list
  of 1,345,796 names of people who fell victim to
  Soviet political repressions.

34
Literature to the topic 4

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35
Literature to the topic 4

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36
Literature to the topic 4

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37
Literature to the topic 4

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38
Literature to the topic 4

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39
Literature to the topic 4

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  Harcourt, Brace World, 1962. 171p.

40
Literature to the topic 4

• Nicholas V.Riasanovsky. A history of Russia.
  London, New York Oxford University Press, 1977.
  3rd ed. xx762p. 30 maps.
• Nove A. Was Stalin really necessary? London,
  1964.
• Nutter, W. The growth of industrial production in
  the Soviet Union. Princeton Princeton University
  Press, 1962.
• Pickering, S. Twentieth-century Russia. London,
  New York Oxford University Press, 1965.
  Reprinted with corrections, 1972. 80p. maps. (The
  Changing World).
• Ponomarev, Boris Nikolaevic. A short history of
  the Communist party of the Soviet Union. ?Moscow,
  1970.
• Raack Richard Charles. Stalins drive to the
  West, 1938-1945. The origins of the Cold War.
  ?Stanford, 1995.
• Reswick, W. I dreamt Revolution. Chicago Henry
  Regnery Co., 1952.
• Riasanovsky, Nicholas V. History of Russia. New
  York Oxford Univ. P., 1993.
• Ringmar Erik. The international politics of
  recognition Soviet Russia in world Affairs,
  1917-1939. ?Stockholm, 1996.
• Robert C. Tucker. Stalin in power the revolution
  from above, 1928-1941. New York, London Norton,
  1990. 707p. bibliog.

41
Literature to the topic 4

• Robert Conquest. Stalin Breaker of nations.
  ?London Weidenfeld Nicolson, 1991. 346p.
  bibliog.
• Robert H. McNeal. Stalin man and ruler.
  ?Basingstoke, England Macmillan in association
  with St. Antony?s College, Oxford, 1988. 389p.
  map. bibliog.
• Robert Payne. The rise and fall of Stalin.
  ?London W. H. Allen, 1966. 767p. bibliog.
• Ronald Hingley. Joseph Stalin man and legend.
  ?London Hutchinson, 1974. xxii482p.
• Roy A. Medvedev, translated by A. D. P. Briggs.
  Nikolai Bukharin, the last years. ?New York,
  London W. W. Norton, 1980. 176p.
• Roy A. Medvedev. Let history judge the origins
  and consequences of Stalinism. ?New York
  Columbia University Press Oxford Oxford
  University Press, 1989. 2nd ed. 903.
• Schapiro Leonard. The Communist party of the
  Soviet Union. ?New York, 1960.
• Schapiro, Leonard. The Communist party of the
  Soviet Union. ?New York, 1960.
• Seweryn, B. Stalin and his generals Soviet
  military memoirs of World War ??. ?Boulder, 1984.
• Solzhenitsyn, A. transl. from the Russian by
  Thomas P. Whitney (vols 1 2) and H. T. Willetts
  (vol. 3). The Gulag archipelago, 1918-1956 an
  experiment in literary investigation. London
  Collins/Fontana, 1974, 1978. 3 vols. map.
• Stephen F. Cohen. Bukharin and the Bolshevik
  Revolution a political biography 1888-1938.
  Oxford, New York, Toronto, Melbourne Oxford
  University Press, 1971. 495p. bibliog.

42
Literature to the topic 4

• Treadgold, D. Twentieth-century Russia. ?Chicago,
  Illinois Rand McNally, 1971. 3rd ed. 563p.
• Treadgold, Donald W. Twentieth century Russia.
  ?Chicago Rand McNally, 1964.
• Trotsky, L. Stalin An appraisal of the man and
  his influence. - New York, 1941.
• Trotsky, L. The revolution betrayed. -New York,
  1937.
• Tucker, R.C. Stalin as revolutionary, 1879-1929
  a study in history and personality. - New York,
  1973.
• Ulam, A. Expansion and coexistence a history of
  Soviet foreign policy, 1917-1967. - New York,
  1968.
• Ulam, A.B. Stalin The man and his era. - New
  York, 1973.
• Van Hagen, M. Soldiers in proletarian
  dictatorship the Red Army and the Soviet
  socialist state, 1917-1930. ? Ithaca, New York
  London Cornell University Press, 1990. 369p.
  bibliog.
• Viola Lynne. Peasant rebels under Stalin
  collectivization and the culture of peasant
  resistance. ?New York, 1996.
• Von Laue, T.H. Why Lenin? Why Stalin? -
  Philadelphia and New York, 1964.
• Walter Laqueur. Stalin the glasnost revelations.
  ?London, Sydney, Wellington Unwin Hyman, 1990.
  382p. bibliog.
• Wheatly, Dennis. Red Eagle the story of the
  Russian Revolution and of Klementy Efremovich
  Voroshilov. ?London, 1938.