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Women in Sport
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Overview

• Gender Inequality in sport
• Background and history
• Social barriers present that limit participation
  by women in sport
• Myths about Women Participating in Sports
• Makes women more masculine
• Sports is harmful to health
• Women are not interested
• Opportunities in Sport for Women
• Youth and high school sports
• Intercollegiate sports
• Title IX
• Leadership Positions in Sport (next lecture)

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History of Western Civilizations

• All men are created equal
• Women not allowed to vote until 144 years after
  Declaration of Independence
• A womens place in the 19th Century was in the
  home.
• Late 19th Century brought many changes
• Women began enjoying some sports activities
• Bicycling
• Womens colleges also increase participation
  efforts in sports

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Sports Illustrated

• Almost 75 years later.
• There may be worse (more socially serious) forms
  of prejudice in the US, but there is not sharper
  example of discrimination today than that which
  operates against girls and women who take part in
  competitive sports, wish to take part, or might
  wish to if society did not scorn such
  endeavors.Sports may be good for people, but
  they are considered a lot gooder for male people
  than female people
• (Gilbert Williamson, 1973, as cited in Eitzen
  and Sage)

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Today

• Women are participating at record levels
• More on this soon
• Women are celebrities and role models for their
  sport prowess
• This was not at all the norm just 30 years ago.

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Why was this the case?

• Why is it still very much the case?
• Numerous forms of discrimination and prejudice
  has caused the slow growth and continued
  under-representation of womens sports
  participation
• First one we will talk about
• Myths about the biological and psychological
  weaknesses of females as athletes

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Myths about Women Participating in Sports

• Competing as an Athlete Masculinizes Females
• Competing in Sports is Harmful to the Health of
  Females
• Women are not Interested or Good at, Sports

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Competing as an Athlete Masculinizes Females

• Similarly aggressive sports are womens hockey,
  boxing, football, rugby, and others where
  oftentimes the women pretty much look and act
  like men. But even the less aggressive but more
  common sports like soccer, basketball, and
  softball tend to make women masculine and manly.
  
• Source
• Should Women Play Sports?By Scott JonasJan 4,
  2005

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Myth

• Most persistent notion about female participation
  and a major deterrent is the idea that vigorous
  physical activity masculinizes they physique
  and behavior of girls and women (Eitzen and Sage)
• Pierre de Coubertin
• LONDON, July 8 (Reuters) -- The Olympics would be
  "men-only" Games if founder Pierre de Coubertin's
  ideas still held sway.
• "If a woman wishes to pilot an airplane, no
  policeman has a right to stop her...but when it
  comes to public sports competitions, women's
  participation should be absolutely prohibited,"
  the Frenchman said in 1910.
• Despite the opposition of the first president of
  the International Olympic Committee (IOC), women
  were allowed to compete in the second modern
  Games in 1900. A century later, they are still
  playing catch-up with their male team mates.
• In Sydney, 38 percent of the Olympic athletes
  were female. Nine of the 199 Sydney teams did not
  contain a woman compared with 26 teams in Atlanta
  in 1996.

http//sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2004/olympics/200
4/07/07/bc.sport.olympics.women/
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Myth.

• There is no evidence to support the notion that
  vigorous physical activity alters the basic
  biological make-up of a female, making her more
  male
• Indeed, physical training does alter the physical
  and psychological characteristics of female
  athletes, but these characteristics likely
  existed before they played sports (i.e., it is
  what attracted them to sports). (Eitzen Sage)

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Gender Role Conflict
I like to look good when I play, and make-up
sends the message that athletes Can be feminine
and still play aggressively (Cammi Granto)
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Gender Role Conflict

• Gender role conflict is purported to be generated
  by the dissonance of the female athlete's need to
  identify with two incompatible roles the valued
  feminine role, and the unvalued, even
  stigmatizing, athletic role for girls and women.
• However, nearly two decades of research has
  failed to find much evidence of this role
  conflict in female athletes (Allison, 1991
  Anthrop Allison, 1983 Goldberg Chandler,
  1991 Miller, Heinrich Cass, 1996 Miller
  Levy, 1996 Sage Loudermilk, 1979).

Source Female Athletes Being both Athletic and
Feminine W. Stephen Royce, Janet L. Gebelt,
Robert W. Duff Athletic Insight, 5 (1)
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Giuliano, Popp and Knight (2000) "the gap
between the 'typical female athlete' and the
'typical female' is narrowing"

• There is a strong perception that athleticism and
  femininity are separate issues and that being an
  athlete does not preclude a woman from also being
  feminine she simply expresses her feminine side
  outside of her sport.
• Interview responses suggest that it is not
  athletics specifically but one's physique and
  one's self-presentation that may affect
  perceptions of femininity, which is consistent
  with other research (Duff, Hong Royce, 1999
  Kolnes, 1995 Krane, 2001 Maguire Mansfield,
  1998 Markula, 1995).
• Men are not the only culprits the women in our
  study express similar stereotypes about what it
  means to be feminine. This particularly emerged
  in women's negative attitudes toward body
  builders. Perhaps it is these seemingly pervasive
  stereotypes about femininity that drive the need
  for women to separate their athletic and feminine
  roles and to take steps to emphasize their
  femininity "off the field" (Krane, 2001 Young,
  1997). Men do not need to do this because
  masculinity and athleticism traditionally are
  seen as compatible.
• Perhaps femininity no longer needs to pervade
  everything a woman does. While the definition of
  femininity per se may not have changed
  substantially, it is possible for a woman to
  engage in highly competitive sports (as long as
  she is not too muscular, like a body builder)
  without losing the perception that she is also
  feminine because multiple role identities can be
  maintained without conflict (Deaux, 1992
  Rosenberg Gara, 1985).

Source Female Athletes Being both Athletic and
Feminine W. Stephen Royce, Janet L. Gebelt,
Robert W. Duff Athletic Insight, 5 (1)
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Competing in Sports is Harmful to the Health of
Females

• 1837 - Donald Walker's book, Exercise for Ladies,
  warns women against horseback riding, because it
  deforms the lower part of the body.
• Early 1900s- PE teachers discouraged women in
  competitive sports because
• The peculiar constitution of a females nervous
  system and the greater emotional disturbances to
  which she is subjected
• Natural feminine health and attractivenessare
  impaired if not destroyed by the belligerent
  attitudes and competitive spirit and development
  which intense athletics inevitably fosters
• 1928- National Amateur Athletic Federation
  Womens Division
• Girls are not suited for the same athletic
  programs as boys. The difference between them
  cannot be ingnored.under prolonged intense
  physical strain a girl goes to pieces
  nervously.a little more strain and she will be
  in danger both physically and nervously

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Myth.

• Biomedical and psychological research over the
  past 25 years clearly shows that intensive sports
  training and competition do create a number of
  health risks (at the elite levels especially).
• For both men and women
• Specific to females- high frequency of knee
  injury, eating disorders, amenorrhea (loss of
  period)

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While there are some health risksa great deal of
research suggests that sport participation is
good for women and girls

• High school girls who play sports are less likely
  to be involved in an unwanted pregnancy more
  likely to get better grades in school and more
  likely to graduate than girls who do not play
  sports
• As little as four hours of exercise a week may
  reduce a teenage girl's risk of breast cancer by
  up to 60 breast cancer is a disease that
  afflicts one out of every eight American women.
  (Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 1994)
• 40 of women over the age of 50 suffers from
  osteoporosis (brittle bones). (Osteoporosis,
  1996). None of us should want our daughters to
  repeat the experiences of generations of women --
  our mothers and grandmothers -- who were not
  permitted to play sports or encouraged to
  participate in weight-bearing exercises that are
  necessary to establishing bone mass.

• Girls and women who play sports have higher
  levels of confidence and self esteem and lower
  levels of depression
• Girls and women who play sports have a more
  positive body image and experience higher states
  of psychological well-being than girls and women
  who do not play sports.
• Sport is where boys have traditionally learned
  about teamwork, goal-setting, the pursuit of
  excellence in performance and other
  achievement-oriented behaviors -- critical skills
  necessary for success in the workplace. In an
  economic environment where the quality of our
  children's lives will be dependent on two-income
  families, our daughters cannot be less prepared
  for the highly competitive workplace than our
  sons.
• It is no accident that 80 of the female
  executives at Fortune 500 companies identified
  themselves as former "tomboys" - having played
  sports.

http//www.womenssportsfoundation.org/cgi-bin/ iow
a/issues/body/article.html?record577
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Women are not Interested or Good at, Sports

• Before Title IX (which will be discussed shortly)
  women participated at a low rate
• In 1971, 294,015 girls participated in high
  school athletics. Today over 2.7 million
  participate in high school athletics. This
  represents an 847 increase.
• At the 2000 Summer Olympics, women accounted for
  more than half the US team.
• In 1972, 1 in 27 girls participated in high
  school varsity sports. In 2002, that figure had
  grown to 1 in 2.5. Before Title IX, women
  composed 2 of college athletes. With athletic
  scholarships available, women in 2001 made up 54
  of college students and 43 of college athletes.
  Since 1972, the number of female intercollegiate
  athletes has increased from 32,000 to 150,000.

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Myth.

• Women are competing at record levels and at
  levels close to that of men
• Because of increased opportunity
• There is a great deal of interest as long as
  there is opportunity (i.e., lack of opportunity
  can lessen motivation to compete)

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Women are not Interested or Good at, Sports

• Strength Training for Women Debunking Myths That
  Block Opportunity
• William P. Ebben, MS, MSSW, CSCS Randall L.
  Jensen, PhD
• THE PHYSICIAN AND SPORTSMEDICINE - VOL 26 - NO. 5
  - MAY 98
• Traditional gender roles and differences in
  absolute strength have resulted in misconceived
  approaches to strength training for women. Male
  physiology, more than hormones, explains men's
  superior absolute strength. When other measures
  of strength are used, such as strength relative
  to cross-sectional area of muscle, the strength
  of men and women is nearly equal. Women who
  practice the same well-designed strength training
  programs as men benefit from bone and soft-tissue
  modeling, increased lean body mass, decreased
  fat, and enhanced self-confidence.

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Another form of discrimination that has limited
women in sports.

• Opportunity and Reward Structure for Women in
  Sport
• More women are involved in sports than ever
  before
• There are still numerous ways in which girls and
  women are deprived of equal opportunity and
  receive inferior rewards

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High School Sports

• In the 2003-04 school year, girls made up over
  42 of all high school sport participants (only
  7.4 in 1972)

Sport School Year Boys Schools Girls Schools Boys Participation Girls Participation
Total 2004-05 135,576 127,817 4,038,467 2,952,693
  1972-1973 111,709 14,836 3,668,367 294,015
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Sport School Year Boys Schools Girls Schools Boys Participation Girls Participation
Soccer 1975-76 3,478 599 115,811 11,534

Sport School Year Boys Schools Girls Schools Boys Participation Girls Participation
Soccer 1986-87 5,980 3,422 203,984 93,034

Sport School Year Boys Schools Girls Schools Boys Participation Girls Participation
Soccer 2003-04 10,219 9,490 349,785 309,032


Sport School Year Boys Schools Girls Schools Boys Participation Girls Participation
Golf 1980-81 9,602 3,048 118,390 32,828

Sport School Year Boys Schools Girls Schools Boys Participation Girls Participation
Golf 2003-04 12,921 8,171 163,341 63,173
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Title IX

• Title IX of the Educational Amendments of 1972 is
  the landmark legislation that bans sex
  discrimination in schools, whether it be in
  academics or athletics. Title IX states
• "No person in the U.S. shall, on the basis of sex
  be excluded from participation in, or denied the
  benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination
  under any educational program or activity
  receiving federal aid.
• Athletics has created the most controversy
  regarding Title IX, but its gains in education
  and academics are notable. Before Title IX, many
  schools refused to admit women or enforced strict
  limits. Some statistics highlighting the
  advancements follow
• In 1994, women received 38 of medical degrees,
  compared with 9 in 1972.
• In 1994, women earned 43 of law degrees,
  compared with 7 in 1972.
• In 1994, 44 of all doctoral degrees to U.S.
  citizens went to women, up from 25 in 1977.

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1972 Congress enacts Title IX of The Educational Amendments of 1972 Signed into law by President Richard Nixon, June 23, 1972. Prohibits sex discrimination in any education program or activity, within an institution receiving any type of Federal financial assistance.
1972 20 U.S.C. ß 1681 et seq. Signed into law by President Richard Nixon, June 23, 1972. Prohibits sex discrimination in any education program or activity, within an institution receiving any type of Federal financial assistance.
     
1979 HEW issues final policy interpretation on Title IX and Intercollegiate Athletics December 11, 1979 Rather than relying exclusively on presumption of compliance standard, final policy focuses on institutions obligation to provide equal opportunity and details the factors to be considered in assessing actual compliance. (Currently referred to as the 3-Prong-Test)
1979 44 Fed. Reg. 71413 et seq. December 11, 1979 Rather than relying exclusively on presumption of compliance standard, final policy focuses on institutions obligation to provide equal opportunity and details the factors to be considered in assessing actual compliance. (Currently referred to as the 3-Prong-Test)
1984 1988 Grove City vs. Bell Civil Rights Restoration Act Supreme Court rules that Title IX does not apply to programs that do not receive direct federal aid. This essentially ended the laws application to athletics. Becomes law on 3/22/88 after overriding a Presidential veto by President Ronald Reagan. Overrides Grove City vs. Bell, and mandates that all educational institutions which receive any type of Federal financial assistance, whether it be direct or indirect, be bound by Title IX legislation.
1992 Franklin vs. Gwinnett County Public Schools February 2, 1992 Supreme Court rules unanimously that plaintiffs filing Title IX lawsuits are entitled to receive punitive damages when intentional action to avoid Title IX compliance is established.
1996 Policy Clarification January 16, 1996 OCR issues clarifications of three-part Effective Accommodation Test
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Intercollegiate Athletics

Title IX governs the overall equity of treatment and opportunity in athletics while giving schools the flexibility to choose sports based on student body interest, geographic influence, budget restraints, and gender ratio. In other words, it is not a matter of women being able to participate in wrestling or that exactly the same amount of money is spent per women's and men's basketball player. Instead, the focus is on the necessity for women to have equal opportunities as men on a whole, not on an individual basis.

In regard to intercollegiate athletics, there are three primary areas that determine if an institution is in compliance

1. athletic financial assistance
2. accommodation of athletic interests abilities
3. other program areas

Appraisal of compliance is on a program-wide basis, not on a sport-by-sport basis.

While many resources have been written specific for intercollegiate sports, the general components of Title IX apply to interscholastic sport as well.

Dr. Mary Curtis and Dr. Christine H.B. Grant.
http//bailiwick.lib.uiowa.edu/ge/
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Financial Assistance

• Financial assistance must be awarded based on the
  number of male and female athletes. The test is
  financial proportionality. The total amounts of
  athletics aid must be substantially proportionate
  to the ratio of male and female athletes.
• E.g., if 40 of your student-athletes are female
  than 40 of the scholarship dollars must be for
  women.

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Accommodation of Athletic Interests Abilities

• Second, the selection of sports and the level of
  competition must effectively accommodate the
  students' interests and abilities. There are 3
  factors that are looked at consecutively.
• Whether the intercollegiate level participation
  opportunities for male and female students are
  provided in numbers substantially proportionate
  to their respective enrollments.
• Where the members of one sex have been and are
  underrepresented among intercollegiate athletes,
  whether the institution can show a history and
  continuing practice of program expansion which is
  demonstrably responsive to the developing
  interests and abilities of that sex.
• Where the members of one sex are underrepresented
  among intercollegiate athletes and the
  institution cannot show a continuing practice of
  program expansion, whether it can be demonstrated
  that the interests and abilities of the members
  of that sex have been fully and effectively
  accommodated by the present program.

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Other Areas

• Third, all other benefits, opportunities, and
  treatments afforded sports participants are to be
  equivalent, but not necessarily identical. Title
  IX specifically looks at the following program
  components
• Equipment Supplies quality, suitability,
  quantity, availability, maintenance,
  replacement.
• Scheduling of Games Practice Time number of
  competitive events per sport, number and length
  of practice opportunities, time of day
  competitive events and practice opportunities are
  scheduled, opportunities to engage in available
  pre-season and post-season competition, the
  season a sport is scheduled, the length of
  season.
• Travel Per Diem Allowances modes of
  transportation, housing furnished during travel,
  length of stay before and after competitive
  events, per diem allowances, dining
  arrangements.
• Opportunity to Receive Academic Tutoring
  availability of tutoring, tutor qualifications
  and experience, rates of pay, employment
  conditions.
• Opportunity to Receive Coaching, Assignment,
  Compensation availability, assignment,
  compensation of full-time coaches, assistants,
  graduate assistants, or restricted earnings
  coaches.
• Locker Rooms, Practice, Competitive Facilities
  quality, availability, exclusivity of use,
  maintenance and preparation of facilities.
• Medical Training Facilities and Services
  quality and availability of medical personnel
  athletic trainers weight and conditioning
  facilities training facilities health,
  accident, and injury insurance coverage.
• Housing Dining Facilities and Services housing
  and dining benefits available during the regular
  year, the provision of pre-game and post-game
  meals, housing and dining services provided
  when classes are not in session.
• Publicity availability and quality of sports
  information personnel, access to publicity
  resources, quantity and quality of publications
  and other promotional devices.
• Support Services administrative support,
  clerical and secretarial support, office space,
  equipment and supplies, availability of other
  support staff.
• Recruitment of Student-Athletes opportunities
  for coaches or other personnel to recruit,
  whether financial and other resources are
  equivalently adequate, treatment of prospective
  student-athletes.

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Title IX and Mens Intercollegiate Sports

• Hundreds of mens sports have been cut
• Hundreds have been added also
• Does Title IX force schools to drop mens
  programs?
• Yes and no.
• Should it?

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(No Transcript)
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NCAA data
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NCAA data
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NCAA data
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NCAA data
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Womens Sports Foundation
Total 2,239 581 1,658
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Arms Race

• A football team was housed in a hotel during
  preseason football camp instead of the university
  dormitories, which were normally used, because
  the team would have to move out of the dorm rooms
  two days prior to the end of training camp in
  order to allow regular students to move in for
  the semester. The coach didn't want the
  disruption. The snack bill alone at that hotel
  during that training camp was 86,000.
• A football team spent more than 50,000 last
  summer to have its meals catered during training
  camp. The entire travel budget for one women's
  team sport at the institution was 22,000.
• A university dropped its men's swimming and
  diving program, citing economics. That same
  university found the means to (1) renovate the
  outdoor track, (2) renovate the indoor track,
  including the installation of hydraulic banked
  turns, (3) build a multi-field baseball complex
  with heating elements under the soil to keep the
  grass growing year round, (4) add a new row of
  skyboxes to the football stadium and (5) install
  new state of the art turf in the football
  stadium.

http//www.womenssportsfoundation.org/cgi-bin/iowa
/issues/rights/article.html?record777