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Title: Decision Making, Creativity, and Ethics


1
Chapter 11
  • Decision Making, Creativity, and Ethics

2
Chapter Outline
  • The Link Between Perception and Individual
    Decision Making
  • How Should Decisions Be Made?
  • How Are Decisions Actually Made in
    Organizations?
  • Constraints Affecting the Decision Choice
  • Group Decision Making
  • The Influence of the Leader on Group Decision
    Making
  • Creativity in Organizational Decision Making
  • What About Ethics in Decision Making?

3
Decision Making, Creativity, and Ethics
  • Who should make decisions individuals or groups?
  • How does one increase creativity in
    organizations?
  • How difficult is it to make ethical decisions?

4
Exhibit 11-1 CEOs Describe Difficult Decisions
of 1998
5
Exhibit 11-2Steps in the Rational
Decision-Making Model
  • Define the Problem
  • Identify the Decision Criteria
  • Allocate Weights to the Criteria
  • Develop the Alternatives
  • Evaluate the Alternatives
  • Select the Best Alternative

6
Assumptions of the Rational Decision-Making Model
  • Problem Clarity
  • The problem is clear and unambiguous
  • Known Options
  • The decision-maker can identify all relevant
    criteria and viable alternatives
  • Clear Preferences
  • Rationality assumes that the criteria and
    alternatives can be ranked and weighted
  • Constant Preferences
  • Specific decision criteria are constant and the
    weights assigned to them are stable over time
  • No Time or Cost Constraints
  • Full information is available because there are
    no time or cost constraints
  • Maximum Payoff
  • The choice alternative will yield the highest
    perceived value

7
How Do Decision-Makers Identify Select Problems
  • Problems that are visible tend to have a higher
    probability of being selected than ones that are
    important. Why?
  • It is easier to recognize visible problems
  • Decision-makers want to appear competent and
    on-top of problems
  • Decision-makers self-interest affects problem
    selection because it is usually in the
    Decision-makers best interest to address
    problems of high visibility and high payoff.
    This demonstrates an ability to perceive and
    attack problems

8
Bounded Rationality
  • Bounded Rationality
  • individuals make decisions by constructing
    simplified models that extract the essential
    features from problems without capturing all
    their complexity
  • Satisficing
  • identifying a solution that is good enough

9
Intuitive Decision Making
  • Intuitive Decision Making
  • An subconscious process created out of distilled
    experience
  • When used
  • when a high level of uncertainty exists
  • when there is little precedent to draw on
  • when variables are less scientifically
    predictable
  • when facts are limited
  • when facts dont clearly point the way to go
  • when analytical data are of little use
  • when there are several plausible alternative
    solutions to choose from, with good arguments for
    each
  • when time is limited and there is pressure to
    come up with the right decision.

10
Heuristics or Judgment Shortcuts
  • Framing The selective use of perspective
  • Statistical Regression to the Mean Failure to
    recognize that performances tend towards the
    average, rather than extremes
  • Availability Heuristic The tendency of people to
    base their judgments on information readily
    available to them
  • Representative Heuristic The tendency to assess
    the likelihood of an occurrence by trying to
    match it with a preexisting category
  • Ignoring the Base Rate Ignoring the statistical
    likelihood of an event when making a decision
  • Escalation of Commitment An increased commitment
    to a previous decision in spite of negative
    information

11
Exhibit 11-3 Examples of Decision Biases
Scenario 1
  • Answer part A before reading part B.
  • A Threatened by a superior enemy force, the
    general faces a dilemma. His intelligence
    officers say his soldiers will be caught in an
    ambush in which 600 of them will die unless he
    leads them to safety by one of two available
    routes. If he takes the first route, 200 soldiers
    will be saved. If he takes the second, theres a
    one-third chance that 600 soldiers will be saved
    and a two-thirds chance that none will be saved.
    Which route should he take?
  • B The general again has to choose between two
    escape routes. But this time his aides tell him
    that if he takes the first, 400 soldiers will
    die. If he takes the second, theres a one-third
    chance that no soldiers will die, and a
    two-thirds chance that 600 soldiers will die.
    Which route should he take?

12
Scenario 2
  • Linda is 31, single, outspoken, and very bright.
    She majored in philosophy in university. As a
    student, she was deeply concerned with
    discrimination and other social issues, and
    participated in anti-nuclear demonstrations.
    Which statement is more likely
  • a. Linda is a bank teller
  • b. Linda is a bank teller and active in the
    feminist movement.

13
Exhibit 11-4Decision-Style Model
High
Analytical
Conceptual
Tolerance for Ambiguity
Behavioural
Directive
Low
Rational
Intuitive
Way of Thinking
14
Organizational Constraints
  • Performance Evaluations
  • Reward Systems
  • Programmed Routines
  • System-Imposed Time Constraints
  • Historical Precedents

15
Group Decision Making
  • Weaknesses of Group Decision Making
  • More time consuming
  • Conformity pressures in groups
  • Discussion can be dominated by one or a few
    members
  • Decisions suffer from ambiguous responsibility
  • Strengths of Group Decision Making
  • Generates more complete information and knowledge
  • Offers increased diversity of views
  • Generates higher-quality decisions
  • Leads to increased acceptance of a solution

16
Effectiveness and Efficiency
  • Accuracy Group Decisions
  • Speed Individual Decisions
  • Creativity Group Decisions
  • Acceptance Group Decisions
  • Efficiency Individual Decisions

17
Groupthink and Groupshift
  • Groupthink
  • Phenomenon in which the norm for consensus
    overrides the realistic appraisal of alternative
    courses of action
  • Groupshift
  • Phenomenon in which the initial positions of
    individual members of a group are exaggerated
    toward a more extreme position

18
Symptoms of Groupthink
  • Rationalized Resistance
  • Peer Pressure
  • Minimized Doubts
  • Illusion of Unanimity

19
What Causes Groupshift?
  • Discussion creates familiarization among group
    members
  • Group discussion motivates individuals to take
    risks
  • Group diffuses responsibility

20
Group Decision-Making Techniques
  • Interacting Groups
  • Brainstorming
  • Nominal Group Technique
  • Electronic Meeting

21
Nominal Group Technique
  • Members meet as a group but, before any
    discussion takes place, each member independently
    writes down his or her ideas on the problem.
  • After this silent period, each member takes turns
    presenting one idea at a time to the group. No
    discussion takes place until all ideas have been
    recorded.
  • The group then discusses the ideas for clarity
    and evaluates them.
  • Each group member silently and independently
    rank-orders the ideas. The idea with the highest
    aggregate ranking determines the final decision.

22
Exhibit 11-5Evaluating Group Effectiveness
23
Leader Behaviours with Groups
  • AI. You solve the problem or make a decision
    yourself using whatever facts you have at hand.
  • AII. You obtain the necessary information from
    subordinates and then decide on the solution to
    the problem yourself.
  • CI. You share the problem with relevant
    subordinates one-on-one, getting their ideas and
    suggestions. However, the final decision is yours
    alone.
  • CII. You share the problem with your subordinates
    as a group, collectively obtaining their ideas
    and suggestions. Then you make the decision that
    may or may not reflect your subordinates
    influence.
  • GII. You share the problem with your subordinates
    as a group. Your goal is to help the group concur
    on a decision. Your ideas are not given any
    greater weight than those of others.

24
Contingency Variables in the Leader-Participation
Model
  • QR Quality Requirement How important is the
    technical quality of this decision?
  • CR Commitment Requirement How important is
    subordinate commitment to the decision?
  • LI Leader Information Do you have sufficient
    information to make a high-quality decision?
  • ST Problem Structure Is the problem well
    structured?
  • CP Commitment Probability If you were to make
    the decision by yourself, is it reasonably
    certain that your subordinates would be committed
    to the decision?
  • GC Goal Congruence Do subordinates share the
    organizational goals to be attained in solving
    this problem?
  • CO Subordinate Conflict Is conflict among
    subordinates over preferred solutions likely?
  • SI Subordinate Information Do subordinates have
    sufficient information to make a high-quality
    decision?
  • TC Time Constraint Does a critically severe
    time constraint limit your ability to involve
    subordinates?
  • GD Geographical Dispersion Are the costs
    involved in bringing together geographically
    dispersed subordinates prohibitive?
  • MT MotivationTime How important is it to you
    to minimize the time it takes to make the
    decision?
  • MD MotivationDevelopment How important is it
    to you to maximize the opportunities for
    subordinate development?

25
Exhibt 11-6 Contingency Variables in the
Leader-Participation Model
26
Exhibit 11-7 Revised Leadership-Participation
Model
27
Creativity
  • The process of creating products, ideas, or
    procedures that are novel or original, and are
    potentially relevant or useful to an organization

28
De Bonos Six Thinking Hats
  • White hat impartial thinking, focussing strictly
    on the facts.
  • Red hat expression of feelings, passions,
    intuitions, emotions.
  • Black hat a critical, deliberate, evaluating
    outlook.
  • Yellow hat an optimistic, upbeat, positive
    outlook.
  • Green hat creativity, inspiration, imagination,
    and the free flow of new concepts.
  • Blue hat control, an overall managerial
    perspective of the process.

29
Organizational Factors Affecting Creativity
  • Challenge
  • Freedom
  • Resources
  • Work-Group Features
  • Supervisory
  • Organizational Support

30
Creativity Blocks
  • Expected evaluation
  • Surveillance
  • External motivators
  • Competition
  • Constrained choice

31
Ethics in Decision Making
  • An individual can use three different criteria in
    framing or making ethical choices.
  • Utilitarian criterion Decisions are made solely
    on the basis of their outcomes or consequences.
  • Rights criterion Decisions consistent with
    fundamental liberties and privileges as set forth
    in documents like the Canadian Charter of Rights
    and Freedoms.
  • Justice criterion Decisions that impose and
    enforce rules fairly and impartially so there is
    an equitable distribution of benefits and costs.

32
Exhibit 11-8Factors Affecting Ethical
Decision-Making Behaviour
Organizational environment
33
Summary and Implications
  • Individual decision making
  • Individuals think and reason before they act.
  • Under some decision situations, people follow the
    rational decision making model.
  • What can managers do to improve their decision
    making?
  • Analyze the situation.
  • Be aware of biases.
  • Combine rational analysis with intuition.
  • Dont assume that your specific decision style is
    appropriate for every job.
  • Use creativity-stimulation techniques.
  • Group decision making
  • Organizations that use teams face additional
    problems and synergies with respect to decision
    making
  • Leader-participation model can be used to
    determine when to allow teams to make decisions

34
Summary and Implications
  • Creativity
  • Organizations need to reward and encourage
    creativity
  • Ethics
  • Managers set the tone for ethics in the
    organization
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