Organic Chemistry

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Organic Chemistry
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Organic Chemistry

• Organ Greek word for life
• Chemistry of living things- both animals and
  plants.
• Based on the element carbon, also Hydrogen
  ,oxygen , phosphorus and sulphur.

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Carbon special properties

• Carbon is the element that by itself, forms more
  compounds than all the other elements
• put together.
• Carbon forms four stable covalent bonds
• Carbon can form bonds to itself,producing long
  stable chains of carbon atoms.
• Carbon can form single ,double and even triple
  bonds.

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Organic chemistry

• Organic chemistry is a discipline within
  chemistry which involves the scientific study of
  the structure, properties, composition,
  reactions, and preparation of chemical compounds
  consisting primarily of carbon and hydrogen,
  which may contain any number of other elements,
  including nitrogen, oxygen, the halogens as well
  as phosphorus, silicon and sulfur

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Organic compounds

• Because of their unique properties, multi-carbon
  compounds exhibit extremely large variety and the
  range of application of organic compounds is
  enormous. They form the basis of, or are
  important constituents of many products (paints,
  plastics, food, explosives, drugs,
  petrochemicals, to name but a few) and (apart
  from a very few exceptions) they form the basis
  of all earthly life processes.

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Description and nomenclature

• Classification is not possible without having a
  full description of the individual compounds.
• In contrast with inorganic chemistry, in which
  describing a chemical compound can be achieved by
  simply enumerating the chemical symbols of the
  elements present in the compound together with
  the number of these elements in the molecule,
• in organic chemistry the relative arrangement of
  the atoms within a molecule must be added for a
  full description.
• One way of describing the molecule is by drawing
  its structural formula.

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IUPAC

• It was realized that as the family of organic
  compounds grew, the system would have to be
  expanded and modified. This task was ultimately
  taken on by the International Union on Pure and
  Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). Recognizing the fact
  that in the branch of biochemistry the complexity
  of organic structures increases, the IUPAC
  organization joined forces with the International
  Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology,
  IUBMB, to produce a list of joint recommendations
  on nomenclature

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Methane
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Molecular models of caffeine
                           
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HYDROCARBON

• In organic chemistry, a hydrocarbon is an organic
  compound consisting entirely of hydrogen and
  carbon.
• Hydrocarbons can be gases (e.g. methane and
  propane),
• liquids (e.g. hexane and benzene), waxes or low
  melting point
• solids (e.g. paraffin wax and naphthalene) or
  polymers (e.g. polyethylene, polypropylene and
  polystyrene).

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Types of organic compounds

• Aliphatic straight chain with C atom forming
  long backbone.
• Aromatic C forms a ring
• Saturated all the bonds between carbon atoms
  are single covalent bonds, ie C-C-C-C.
• Unsaturated Carbon skeleton has at least one
  double or one triple bond. i.e.
• C-C-C-C-CC-C-C-

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Saturated hydrocarbons

• Saturated hydrocarbons (alkanes) are the most
  simple of the hydrocarbon species and are
  composed entirely of single bonds and are
  saturated with hydrogen.
• The general formula for saturated hydrocarbons
  is CnH2n2 .
• Saturated hydrocarbons are the basis of
  petroleum fuels and are either found as linear or
  branched species.

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Unsaturated hydrocarbons

• Unsaturated hydrocarbons have one or more double
  or triple bonds between carbon atoms. Those with
  one double bond are called alkenes, with the
  formula CnH2n (assuming non-cyclic structures).
  Those containing triple bonds are called alkynes,
  with general formula CnH2n-2.

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Functional groups

• Organic compounds are classified according to
  functional groups.
• Functional groups form homologous series, i.e.
  compounds with very similar chemical properties.
• The simplest homologous series is the ALKANES.
  They are saturated hydrocarbons.
• They have a general formula CnH2n2

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Functional groups

• Alkanes
• Alkenes
• Alkynes
• Alcohols
• Aldehydes

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Homologous series



Number ofcarbon atoms Alkane Alkene Alkyne
1 Methane CH4
2 Ethane C2H8 Ethene Ethyne
3 Propane C3H12 Propene Propyne
4 ButaneIsobutane Butene Butyne
5 PentaneIsopentaneNeopentane Pentene Pentyne
6 Hexane Hexene Hexyne
7 Heptane Heptene Heptyne
8 Octane Octene Octyne
9 Nonane Nonene Nonyne
10 Decane C10H22 Decene Decyne

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Isomers

• Definition Isomers are organic compounds which
  have the same chemical formula but a different
  structural formula.
• Hydrocarbons with the same molecular formula but
  different structural formulae are called isomers.
• The knowledge of the chemical formula for an
  organic compound is not sufficient information
  because many isomers can exist.
• Example pentane C5H10

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Isomers of pentane
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Naming

• Identify longest straight chain of C-C-C
• Remember that in 3D, rotation takes place around
  a single C C covalent atom.
• Name straight chain based on number of C atoms.
• Check if there is a side chain, branch
• Identify functional group

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Crude oil
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Oil refinery Fractional distillation
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Crude oil

• The most important use of hydrocarbons is in the
  supply of energy.
• Combustion hydrocarbons burn in oxygen.
• Crude oil cannot be used as it is. It has to be
  separated into fractions by fractional
  distillation.
• This takes place in a refinery.

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Crude oil

• Raw or unprocessed crude oil is not useful in the
  form it comes in out of the ground.
• Although oil has been used directly as a burner
  fuel for steam vessel propulsion, the lighter
  elements form explosive vapors in the fuel tanks
  and so it is quite dangerous, especially so in
  warships.
• For this and many other uses, the oil needs to be
  separated into parts and refined before use in
  fuels and lubricants, and before some of the
  byproducts could be used.

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Petrochemicals

• petrochemical processes to form materials such as
  plastics, detergents, solvents, elastomers, and
  fibers such as nylon and polyesters.

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• Petroleum fossil fuels are used in ship,
  automobile and aircraft engines. These different
  hydrocarbons have different boiling points, which
  means they can be separated by distillation.
  Since the lighter liquid elements are in great
  demand for use in internal combustion engines, a
  modern refinery will convert heavy hydrocarbons
  and lighter gaseous elements into these higher
  value products.

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Fractional distillation

• Crude oil is separated into fractions by
  fractional distillation.
• The fractions at the top of the fractionating
  column have lower boiling points than the
  fractions at the bottom.
• The heavy bottom fractions are often cracked into
  lighter, more useful products. All of the
  fractions are processed further in other refining
  units

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Cracking

• In petroleum geology and chemistry, cracking is
  the process whereby complex organic molecules
  such as heavy hydrocarbons are broken down into
  simpler molecules (e.g. light hydrocarbons) by
  the breaking of carbon-carbon bonds.
• The rate of cracking and the end products are
  strongly dependent on the temperature and
  presence of any catalysts.
• Cracking, also referred to as pyrolysis, is the
  breakdown of a large alkane into smaller, more
  useful alkenes and an alkane.
• Simply put, cracking hydrocarbons is when you
  break long chain hydrocarbons up into short ones

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Products of crude oil

• Natural gas --Refinery gas. C1 C4 -2
• Gasoline - petrol. 15-30 C5 C10
• Kerosene - jet aircraft fuels. 10-15 , C11-C12
• Diesel fuel 15-20 Industrial heating, large
  ships
• Fuel oil - Lubricating oils - Paraffin wax
• Asphalt and Tar
• Petroleum coke

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Refinery gas

• burns cleanly with no soot and very few sulfur
  emissions, posing no ground or water pollution
  hazards.
• Large amounts of LPG can be stored in bulk tanks
  and can be buried underground if required.
  Alternatively, gas cylinders can be used.

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Gasoline

• Gasoline or petrol is a liquid mixture primarily
  used as fuel in internal combustion engines. It
  is petroleum-derived, and consists mostly of
  aliphatic hydrocarbons, enhanced with iso-octane
  or the aromatic hydrocarbons toluene and benzene
  to increase its octane rating.

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Definition of octane rating

• The octane rating of a spark ignition engine fuel
  is the detonation resistance (anti-knock rating)
  compared to a mixture of iso-octane
  (2,2,4-trimethylpentane, an isomer of octane) and
  n-heptane.
• By definition, iso-octane is assigned an octane
  rating of 100 and heptane is assigned an octane
  rating of zero. An 87-octane gasoline, for
  example, possesses the same anti-knock rating of
  a mixture of 87 (by volume) iso-octane and 13
  (by volume) n-heptane.
• This does not mean, however, that the gasoline
  actually contains these hydrocarbons in these
  proportions. It simply means that it has the same
  detonation resistance as the described mixture.

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Kerosene

• Kerosene is a thin, clear liquid formed from
  hydrocarbons, with density of 0.78-0.81g/cm3.
  Kerosene is obtained from the fractional
  distillation of petroleum between 150 C and
  275 C, resulting in a mixture of carbon chains
  containing 12 to 15 carbon atoms.
• The name is derived from Greek keros (????? wax).
  

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Diesel

• Petroleum diesel, also called petrodiesel,3 or
  fossil diesel is produced from petroleum and is a
  hydrocarbon mixture, obtained in the fractional
  distillation of crude oil between 200 C and
  350 C at atmospheric pressure.

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Fuel oil

• Fuel oil is a fraction obtained from petroleum
  distillation, either as a distillate or a
  residue.
• Broadly speaking, fuel oil is any liquid
  petroleum product that is burned in a furnace or
  boiler for the generation of heat or used in an
  engine for the generation of power.
• Fuel oil is made of long hydrocarbon chains,
  particularly alkanes, cycloalkanes and aromatics.

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Lubricant

• A lubricant (sometimes referred to as a "Lube")
  is a substance (often a liquid) introduced
  between two moving surfaces to reduce the
  friction between them, improving efficiency and
  reducing wear.
• They also have the function of dissolving foreign
  particles. Petroleum-based lubricants like
  Vaseline tend to dissolve petroleum products such
  as rubber and plastic, while water-based
  lubricants will dissolve polar chemicals.

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Wax

• Paraffin wax (or simply "paraffin", but see
  alternative name for kerosene, above) is mostly
  found as a white, odorless, tasteless, waxy
  solid, with a typical melting point between about
  47 C to 64 C .
• Paraffin wax (C25H52)

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asphalt

• The word asphalt is derived from the Greek
  ásphalton, ásphaltos (?sfa?t??), "flawless".

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Polymer

• A polymer is a large molecule (macromolecule)
  composed of repeating structural units typically
  connected by covalent chemical bonds. The simple
  building blocks are called monomers. While
  polymer in popular usage suggests plastic, the
  term actually refers to a large class of natural
  and synthetic materials with a variety of
  properties and purposes.
• Polypropylene IUPAC name poly(propene) Except
  where noted otherwise, data are given
  formaterials in their standard state(at 25 C,
  100 kPa)Infobox references Well-known examples
  of polymers include plastics and proteins. A
  simple example is polypropylene, whose repeating
  unit structure is shown at the right.

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Monomers

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Polymer
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Polymers

• Two types
• Natural polymers are made by living organisms,
  such as starch.
• Biopolymers such as proteins and nucleic acids
  play crucial roles in biological processes. A
  variety of other natural polymers exist, such as
  cellulose, which is the main constituent of wood
  and paper.
• Synthetic polymers Man made.includes Bakelite,
  neoprene, nylon, PVC, polystyrene,
  polyacrylonitrile, PVB, silicone, and many more.

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Polypropylene
Polypropylene Polypropylene

IUPAC name poly(propene)
Except where noted otherwise, data are given formaterials in their standard state(at 25 C, 100 kPa)Infobox references Except where noted otherwise, data are given formaterials in their standard state(at 25 C, 100 kPa)Infobox references
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Polymers

PET Polyethylene terephthalate - Fizzy drink bottles and oven-ready meal trays.
HDPE High-density polyethylene - Bottles for milk and washing-up liquids.
PVC Polyvinyl chloride - Food trays, cling film, bottles for squash, mineral water and shampoo.  
LDPE Low density polyethylene - Carrier bags and bin liners.
PP Polypropylene - Margarine tubs, microwaveable meal trays.
PS Polystyrene - Yoghurt pots, foam meat or fish trays, hamburger boxes and egg cartons, vending cups, plastic cutlery, protective packaging for electronic goods and toys.
OTHER Any other plastics that do not fall into any of the above categories. - An example is melamine, which is often used in plastic plates and cups




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Benefits of plastics

• The considerable growth in plastic use is due to
  the beneficial properties of plastics. These
  include
• Extreme versatility and ability to be tailored to
  meet very specific technical needs.
• Lighter weight than competing materials, reducing
  fuel consumption during transportation.
• Extreme durability.
• Resistance to chemicals, water and impact.
• Good safety and hygiene properties for food
  packaging.
• Excellent thermal and electrical insulation
  properties.
• Relatively inexpensive to produce.

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Use of pastics
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Plastics advantages

• Recyclable Plastics can be melted and used to
  make other products.
• Can be incinerated Plastics can be melted down
  and may be able to generate electricity.
• Durable Plastics can take the wear and tear of
  everyday life without falling apart.
• Resistant to the environment Plastics are able
  to endure a variety of weather conditions without
  disintegrating.

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Plastics disadvantages

• Flammable This is definitely an advantage in
  that they can be melted down, however smoldering
  plastics can release toxic fumes into the
  environment.
• Cost of Recycling While recycling is a plus,
  recycling is a very costly endeavor.
• Volume In the United States 20 of our landfill
  is made up of plastics. As more products are
  being made of plastics, where will this lead us
  in the future?
• Durability This is an advantage as well as a
  disadvantage. Plastics are extremely durable,
  which means that they last a long time. Those
  plastics in the landfill will be there for years.

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Natural polymers


Monomer Polymer
Fatty acid Diglyceride, triglyceride
Monosaccharide Polysaccharide
Amino acid Polypeptide (protein)
Nucleotide Nucleic acid (DNA, RNA)



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Glucose
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Sugars Carbohydrates
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Proteins
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DNA
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DNA
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Base
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Recycle
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Renewable energy
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Renewable energy

• Definition energy generated from natural
  resourcessuch as sunlight, wind, rain, tides and
  geothermal heatwhich are renewable (naturally
  replenished).
• In 2006, about 18 of world energy consumption
  came from renewables, with 13 coming from
  traditional biomass, such as wood-burning.
• Hydroelectricity was the next largest renewable
  source, providing 3, followed by solar hot
  water/heating, which contributed 1.3.
• Modern technologies, such as geothermal energy,
  wind power, solar power, and ocean energy
  together provided some 0.8 of final energy
  consumption.

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Renewable energy and climate change

• Climate change concerns coupled with high oil
  prices, peak oil and increasing government
  support are driving increasing renewable energy
  legislation, incentives and commercialization.
• European Union leaders reached an agreement in
  principle in March 2007 that 20 percent of their
  nations' energy should be produced from renewable
  fuels by 2020.
• This will to cut emissions of carbon dioxide,
  blamed in part for global warming. Investment
  capital flowing into renewable energy climbed
  from 80 billion in 2005 to a record 100 billion
  in 2006.

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Solar energy

• solar energy" refers to energy that is collected
  from sunlight. Solar energy can be applied in
  many ways, including to
• Generate electricity by heating trapped air which
  rotates turbines in a Solar updraft tower.
• Generate electricity in geosynchronous orbit
  using solar power satellites.
• Generate electricity using photovoltaic solar
  cells.
• Generate electricity using concentrated solar
  power.
• Generate hydrogen using photoelectrochemical
  cells.
• Heat and cool air through use of solar chimneys.
• Heat buildings, directly, through passive solar
  building design.
• Heat foodstuffs, through solar ovens.
• Heat water or air for domestic hot water and
  space heating needs using solar-thermal panels.
• Solar air conditioning

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Solar cell made from silicon
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Solar cell how it works

• Photons in sunlight hit the solar panel and are
  absorbed by semiconducting materials, such as
  silicon.
• Electrons (negatively charged) are knocked loose
  from their atoms, allowing them to flow through
  the material to produce electricity. Due to the
  special composition of solar cells, the electrons
  are only allowed to move in a single direction.
  The complementary positive charges that are also
  created (like bubbles) are called holes and flow
  in the direction opposite of the electrons in a
  silicon solar panel.
• An array of solar panels converts solar energy
  into a usable amount of direct current (DC)
  electricity.

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Low Cost Solar Cell

• Dye-sensitized solar cell is considered the low
  cost solar cell.
• This cell is because it is made of low-cost
  materials and does not need elaborate apparatus
  to manufacture, so it can be made in a DIY way
  allowing more players to produce it than any
  other type of solar cell. In bulk it should be
  significantly less expensive than older
  solid-state cell designs.
• It can be engineered into flexible sheets.
  Although its conversion efficiency is less than
  the best thin film cells, its price/performance
  ratio should be high enough to allow them to
  compete with fossil fuel electrical generation.

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Wind power

• Airflows can be used to run wind turbines. Modern
  wind turbines range from around 600 kW to 5 MW of
  rated power, although turbines with rated output
  of 1.53 MW have become the most common for
  commercial use the power output of a turbine is
  a function of the cube of the wind speed, so as
  wind speed increases, power output increases
  dramatically. Areas where winds are stronger and
  more constant, such as offshore and high altitude
  sites, are preferred locations for wind farms.

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Biofuel

• Plants use photosynthesis to grow and produce
  biomass. Also known as biomatter, biomass can be
  used directly as fuel or to produce liquid
  biofuel.
• Agriculturally produced biomass fuels, such as
  biodiesel, ethanol and bagasse (often a
  by-product of sugar cane cultivation) can be
  burned in internal combustion engines or boilers.
• Typically biofuel is burned to release its
  stored chemical energy. Research into more
  efficient methods of converting biofuels and
  other fuels into electricity utilizing fuel cells
  is an area of very active work.

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World wind energy
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Solar tower
                                   
The 11 megawatt PS10 solar power tower in Spain
produces electricity from the sun using 624 large
movable mirrors called heliostats.
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First Solar 40 MW PV Array installed by JUWI
Group in Waldpolenz, Germany
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Photovoltaics

• Waldpolenz Solar Park, which will be the worlds
  largest thin-film photovoltaic (PV) power system,
  is being built by Juwi at a former military air
  base to the east of Leipzig in Germany. The power
  plant will be a 40-megawatt solar power system
  using state-of-the-art thin film technology, and
  should be finished by the end of 2009.
• 550,000 First Solar thin-film modules will be
  used, which will supply 40,000 MWh of electricity
  per year.
• The installation will be in eastern Germany, to
  be built on half of the locations 220 hectares
  in the townships of Brandis and Bennewitz. The
  investment cost for the Waldpolenz solar park
  amounts to some Euro 130 million.

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Photovoltaics

• 1 hectare 10.000 m2
• 220 440 plots of land.
• 1 MW 1.000 KW
• How much electricity do we need in Cyprus???

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