Persuasion and Argumentation

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Persuasion and Argumentation

• From Latin (persuadere) and Greek (peíto)
  convincing, changing ones mind, inducing,
  enticing, impressing, seducing
• Persuasive communication intends
• (1) to change (adjust) audiences values,
  beliefs, and attitudes and
• (2) to elicit action (a desired behavior).

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The process of forwarding arguments is called
argumentation.

• Argumentation is at once
• advocacy of a particular belief, preference, or
  policy
• the inquiry of finding the best answers to a
  problem or a controversy.
• a debate a battle, a struggle between opinions
  and positions.

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Methods of Persuasion

• Logos the argument proper. Proper reasoning
  and good evidence
• Ethos the character of the speaker
  (credibility)
• Pathos producing the right attitude in the
  hearer (emotional/motivational appeals)
• Also Cognitive dissonance theory, reactance
  theory

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Elaboration Likelihood Model

• What happens when a person receives a persuasive
  message?
• Distinct routes of processing
• Central route (Elaboration occurs)
• Peripheral route (Nonelaboration)

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Elaboration Likelihood Model

• Central route
• The strength of the argument
• Peripheral
• Credibility
• Liking
• Number of arguments

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Conditioning

• Classical (association).
• Operant (reinforcement)
• Positive reinforcement (favorable stimulus to
  cause/increase behavior)
• Negative reinforcement (removal of aversive
  stimulus to cause behavior)
• Positive punishment (aversive stimulus to
  decrease behavior)
• Negative punishment (removal of favorable
  stimulus to decrease behavior)

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Cognitive Dissonance Theory

• Any two cognitive elements will have one of three
  kinds of relationships
• Irrelevant (I like ice cream and I am aware of
  dangers of drunk driving)
• Consonant (I like ice cream and I know that dairy
  products are good for the body)
• Dissonant (I like ice cream and I am aware of the
  dangers of high cholesterol)

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Cognitive Dissonance Theory

• Inconsistency between two cognitins gives rise to
  the uncomfortable psychological state of
  cognitive dissonance
• Because dissonance is so very uncomfortable to
  us, we will do almost anything to reduce the
  dissonance in order to achieve consonance

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Three ways in which dissonance can be reduced

• 1. One might change one or more of the
  cognitive elements
• (a) change the original behavior stop eating
  ice cream or reduce frequency of eating ice cream
  
• (b) or reject the new information it is not
  true that cholesterol is bad for you

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Three ways in which dissonance can be reduced

• 2. New elements might by added
• Eating ice cream is extremely enjoyable
• Ice cream alone is not that bad there are worse
  things with cholesterol
• 3. One might come to see the elements as less
  important
• The research on cholesterol is inconclusive.

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Stereotyping

• Cognitive frameworks consisting of knowledge and
  beliefs about specific social groups (suggesting
  that all members of a group possess certain
  traits)
• Allow to make quick judgments
• Self-confirming role
• Prejudice, favoritism

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Using Listeners Needs

• Maslows Hierarchy of Needs
• Physiological needs
• Safety
• Social
• Self-esteem
• Self-actualization

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Understanding audiences

• Target Audiences
• General Public

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War in Iraq Favor or OpposeHow public opinion
changes quickly.
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Marijuana should be legal

• .

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Learning about the U.S. in context of other
countries
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Government has responsibility to reduce income
differences
UK US NL NZ CAN
Definitely yes 43 18 39 35 28
Probably yes 38 28 40 30 33
Probably not 10 25 13 15 20
Definitely no 7 27 6 18 17
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Sexual relations before marriage
UK US NL DK CAN
Always wrong 11 30 7 6 12
Almost always wrong 7 11 3 3 7
Some-times 14 20 20 9 15
Not wrong at all 66 38 70 83 65
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Same sex relations
F US NL
Always wrong 38 62 16
Almost always wrong 9 6 5
Some-times 17 7 12
Not wrong at all 36 24 67
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There is hell
UK US NL DK JAP
YES 13 55 13 8 6
Maybe
NO 34 12 48 60 21

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Believe in God
UK US NL DK JAP
NO 41 18 48 55 55
Some-times 14 5 8 11 32
YES with doubts 23 15 18 20 9
YES without a doubt 26 63 26 14 4
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Europe vs. U.S. on death penalty

• 1997 75 of Americans supported death penalty
• 2011 60 of Americans support death penalty.
• 2008 about 30 of Europeans support death
  penalty

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Support for death penalty
Taiwan 80
Russia 67
The U.S. 63
Japan 58
UK 49
France 41
Mexico 38
Germany 27
Denmark 18
Spain 17
Norway 16
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Divorce by areas

• Area are or have been divorced
• South 27
• Midwest 27
• West 26
• Northeast 19

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Divorces by religion

• Religion have been divorced
• Born-again Christians 27
• Other Christians 24
• Atheists, Agnostics 21

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Marriage

• How the best- and least-educated Americans
  approach marriage and child-rearing

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Divorced in 10 years
College educated High school dropouts
Married in 1975-79 29 38
Married in 1990-94 16 46

Out-of-wedlock children 4 15

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A person has the right to suicide if he/she is
tired of living

• .

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Types of propositions
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Types of propositions

• Propositions of fact assert that something is or
  exists
• Propositions of value assert that something has a
  value (is good, right, correct, efficient,
  moral).
• Propositions of policy assert that something
  should be done (that an action needs to be taken,
  policy enacted, etc.)

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Persuasive Speech on a Question of Fact

• Specific Purpose To persuade my audience that
  another major earthquake will hit
  California by the year 2025.
• Main Points
• I. Many geological signs indicate
  that a major earthquake may happen soon.
• II. Experts agree that a major
  earthquake could hit California any day.

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Persuasive Speech on aQuestion of Value

• Specific Purpose To persuade my audience
  that capital punishment is morally
  and legally wrong.
• Main Points I. Capital punishment is
  immoral
• II. Capital punishment violates the
  constitutional ban on cruel and
  unusual punishment.

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Challenges in arguing values

• What are the criteria for the values?
• Can you convince the audience that the audience
  should accept your criteria?
• For example
• What are the criteria for cruel and unusual?
• What are the criteria for moral?

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Persuasive Speech on a Question of Policy

• Specific Purpose To persuade my audience
  that action should be taken now to solve
  the nations shortage of nurses.
• Main Points I. The shortage of nurses
  has become a serious national
  problem.
• II. The problem can be solved by
  offering nurses better salaries and
  better working conditions.

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Hierarchy of Propositions

• The policy proposition is the final element in a
  decision-making process.
• Proposition of fact Person x engaged in a
  sexual relationship with a minor.
• Proposition of value Person X is guilty of a
  crime
• Proposition of policy Person X should be
  punished by a fine, jail term, etc.

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Hierarchy of Propositions

• IF, Propositions of fact oil is becoming more
  expensive and nuclear energy is cheaper and
  readily available in the United States.
• THUS
• Proposition of value Nuclear energy is superior
  to other types of energy (coal, oil, etc.)
• THEREFORE,
• Proposition of policy
• We should build more nuclear plants..

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Steps in Developing a Speech on the Question of
Policy

• 1. Identify the problem to be resolved
• The first step in developing a policy is to show
  that there is a need for taking an action
• 2. Identify the causes of the problem
• The question of causation is a question of
  culpability. Who is at fault? Whom or what
  should we blame?

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The nature of the Problem

• The Magnitude (the problem is severe)
• The Extent (growing, widespread)

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The origins of the problem

• What is the cause of the problem?
• Is this the real cause of the problem?
• Is the cause structural or attitudinal?

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Identify (or invent) available policies and
select the best one.

• 1. What is the mechanism of the policy?
• How does it work?
• 2. Is the policy solving/minimizing the
• problem?
• 3. Is the policy affordable?
• 4. Is the policy enforceable? 

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What are you proposing to do?

• Are you addressing causes or symptoms of the
  problem?
• What behaviors are to be enacted that are not
  presently being enacted?

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Mechanism

• How it is going to work?
• Is the solution available and acceptable?

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Financing

• How are you planning to pay for it?
• Is the solution affordable?
• Who will benefit from the policy? Who will pay
  the costs?

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Enforcement

• What means are used to ensure compliance?

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Expected results

• Does the policy eliminate the causes (or only
  symptoms) of the problem?
• Does the policy have unintended effects?
• Is the policy workable in the long run?

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Opposing Policy Propositions
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Refute the Reason for Change
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Challenge the Problem Refute the Reason for
Change

• The problem is not severe
• The problem is stable or declining
• The problem is of little importance for the
  audience

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The problem is not severe
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The problem is stableExample suicides per
100,000
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Challenge problem causation

• What is the cause of the problem?
• Is this the real cause of the problem?
• Is the cause structural or attitudinal?

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Refute the Solutions

• Identify Barriers
• Dispute Workability
• Present Disadvantages

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Identify Barriers

• Policy is not available
• E.g., technology is not available
• Policy is not acceptable
• E.g., policy will not pass constitutional
  scrutiny

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Dispute Workability

• The policy is not affordable
• The policy is difficult to implement
• The policy cannot be enforced

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Present Disadvantages

• The policy has unintended effect
• It makes things worse
• It creates more problems

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Refute evidence

• Inaccurate/False/Insufficient
• Incomplete
• Inconsistent
• Not recent enough
• Sources Biased
• Sources Unreliable

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Identify logical fallacies

• Hasty Generalization
• Forcing a Dichotomy
• (false dilemma)
• Ad Hominem
• Appeal to Authority/Tradition/People
• Circular reasoning