Zaman Gelap Abad ke-5 sampai Abad ke-10

1
Zaman GelapAbad ke-5 sampai Abad ke-10

• Akhir Cendekiawan Arab
• Setelah tahun 1100, cendekiawan Arab terus
  berkurang (tidak ada penerus)
• Alkemi
• Arab juga meneruskan kegiatan alkemi
• Mereka memadukan alkemi dari Yunani dengan alkemi
  dari Cina (dari Taoisme)
• Kelompok eksoterik menguat lagi sehingga
  kedua-duanya esoterik dan eksoterik sama kuatnya
• Dari kegiatan mereka ditemukan bahan alkali
  caustik (soda alkali)
• Zaman Pertengahan
• Zaman Gelap disusul oleh Zaman Pertengahan
  (Medieval) pada abad ke-10

2
Zaman PertengahanAbad ke-10 sampai Abad ke-15

• Karakteristik Zaman
• Kehidupan di Eropa relatif lebih tenang
• Kegairahan belajar mulai bangkit lagi. Mulai ada
  pendidikan di luar katedral
• Karya Yunani dan Arab diterjemahkan dari bahasa
  Arab ke bahasa Latin terutama oleh orang Yahudi
• Perhatian kepada filsafat tararah ke metafisika
  dan bahkan diperdebatkan
• Filsafat digunakan untuk menjustifikasi agama
• Universitas dengan istilah universitas mulai
  muncul pada zaman ini
• Metoda induktif mulai digunakan di dalam
  pencarian pengetahuan

3
Zaman PertengahanFilsafat Metafisika

• Aliran Filsafat
• Sejak zaman Yunani Kuno sudah ada perbedaan
  aliran di bidang metafisika
• Pada zaman pertengahan, setiap aliran
  mengemukakan argumentasi masing-masing
• Ada yang berpegang kepada Plato serta ada yang
  berpegang kepada Aristoteles
• Perdebatan
• Ada kalanya, aliran berbeda saling berdebat
• Argumentasi cukup marak pada abad ke-12 sampai
  ke-14 Universitas juga mempelajari esensi
  universal pada filsafat
• Dari zaman ke zaman terjadi pergeseran anutan
  dari satu aliran ke aliran lainnya

4
Zaman PertengahanStudium dan Universitas

• Studium
• Bermunculan studium yakni tempat orang
  mempelajari bidang pengetahuan tertentu di bawah
  pengajar
• Ada tiga studium yang sangat terkenal yakni
  studium di Salerno (medik), Bologna (hukum dan
  teologi), dan Paris (seni dan teologi) semacam
  program studi sekarang
• Studium Generale
• Studium generale adalah studium yang terbuka
  untuk semua pelajar (dari berbagai negeri)
• Jadi generale di sini berarti terbuka untuk semua
  jenis pelajar
• Biasanya studium yang terkenal berbentuk studium
  generale

5
Zaman PertengahanStudium dan Uunivesitas

• Docendi, Doctor, Magister
• Pengajaran di studium dilakukan melalui docendi
  (menggurui)
• Kemudian pengajar dibekali lisensi mengajar oleh
  katedral atau kaisar berupa licentiae docendi dan
  ius ubique docendi (berhak mengajar di
  mana-mana)
• Pelaksana docendi adalah doctor sehingga arti
  doctor adalah pemberi docendi atau guru
• Pengajar juga dikenal sebagai magister yang
  artinya juga guru
• Doctor dan magister adalah sejajar. Ada jenis
  studium yang menggunakan istilah doctor dan ada
  yang menggunakan istilah magister

6
Zaman PertengahanStudium dan Universitas

• Legere
• Jarang ada buku sehingga buku hanya dimiliki
  oleh para pengajar
• Pengajaran berlangsung melalui pembacaan
  (legere, lectus) oleh pengajar dan pelajar
  mencatatnya
• Pengajar yang membaca dikenal sebagai lektor
  yakni mereka yang membaca (sekarang dikenal
  sebagai lektor)
• Ada juga commentatio (komentar) dan summa
  (ringkasan)
• Disputatio dan Tesis
• Sewaktu-waktu ada disputatio yakni perdebatan
• Di dalam disputatio, ada yang mendudukkan atau
  menempatkan (thesis) pemikiran yang perlu
  dipertahankannya terhadap sanggahan
• Secara harfiah, thesis berarti mendudukkan atau
  menempatkan

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• Disputations
• Like other university-educated men, the doctor
  was rational in a dialectical way, in using
  Aristotles logic and its medieval developments.
  He was trained in this according to statutory
  rules that governed how often pupils and masters
  should dispute. In most universities masters were
  obliged to respond to questions, including
  quodlibets. Bolognese doctors who were entitled
  to teach had to dispute once a week and make
  arrangements for the publication of their
  solution to the questions. Physicians and
  philosophers of standing were also obliged to
  dispute on or near feast days we know that Dino
  del Garbo did so in Bologna and that he once
  disputed with Gentile da Foligno in the street. .
  We have seen how, even in the twelfth century,
  logic was popular in the heroic schools, and now
  that the Posterior Analytics of Aristotle seemed
  to supply a programme for investigating the
  natural world, its range and power were greatly
  increased. Disputations were exercises in
  sustaining one thesis over another by questioning
  its premisses or logic, and an important
  technique was the distinction where different
  meanings could be drawn out of single term. The
  result could be an exciting or noisy meeting (we
  have noted Bacons complaint that doctors were
  too anxious to dispute). They were also public
  affairs and provided an external face of
  university rationality, whether medical or
  otherwise

8

• Dubia
• The written form of disputation was the dubium,
  the disputed question. This had a rigid and
  complex form and some disputed questions were
  hugely elaborate. These two features have
  repelled both sixteenth-century Hellenists and
  humanists and some later historians, but it will
  serve our purposes to take a quick look at the
  form. A disputed question was one that arose from
  the study of a text and normally took the form of
  a question that expected a positive answer,
  beginning An or Utrum(Whether). Then came a
  section in which all the negative arguments were
  brought forward. Ideally, the form of the
  argument was syllogistic, with both major and
  minor propositions being drawn from the text,
  from the words of another authority or from
  sensory experience. These arguments were then
  attacked and destroyed in the same way, leaving
  the positive answer unscathed. Along the way
  other small objections or instances were
  brought up and disposed of, as if to show that
  all possible objections could be satisfied.
  Commentators such as Dino del Garbo and Gentile
  da Foligno in the first half of the fourteenth
  century commonly put the objections in the mouth
  of the reader, a sort of student-figure But you
  will at once say , Sed statim tu dices

9
Zaman PertengahanStudium dan Universitas

• Tujuan Belajar
• Tujuan belajar di studium adalah untuk menjadi
  doctor atau magister dengan hak mengajar
  (dengan semua hak yang berkenaan dengan
  jabatannya)
• Gelar
• Kecuali hukum, medik, dan teologi, semua
  lainnya adalah filsasat, sehingga gelar lulusan
  menjadi PhD
• Lulusan medik adalah MD dan luluan hukum LLD
  (bukan PhD)
• Pakaian
• Di Oxford dan Cambridge, toga adalah pakaian
  sehari-hari (kini dipakai pada upacara saja)

10

• Base Converter (from Internet)
• A German merchant of the fifteenth century asked
  an eminent professor where he should send his son
  for a good business education. The professor
  responded that German universities would be
  sufficient to teach the boy addition and
  subtraction but he would have to go to Italy to
  learn multiplication and division.
• Before you smile indulgently, try
  multiplying or even just adding the Roman
  numerals CCLXIV, MDCCCIX, and MLXXXI without
  first translating them
• John Allen Paulis,
  Beyond Numeracy

11

• From Byte Magazine
• April 1883
• Professor Eaton Zweiback of Slippery Rock
  University recently announced the discovery oa a
  new number system called Binary System. This
  system uses only two numerals, 0 and 1, as
  opposed to the decimal system which uses ten.
  Professor Zweiback claims that the binary system
  will have no practical value and will be used
  mostly as a mathematical novelty
• April 1883
• Havard anthropologists have discovered the
  remains of an ancient Arabian city just 75 miles
  north of where ancient Babylon one stood. Little
  is known about the inhabitants of this city
  except for the fact for some unknown reason they
  wrote the numeral zero with a slash through it.
  The anthropologists are completely puzzled as to
  why these people used such a strange symbol.

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Zaman PertengahanStudium dan Universitas

• Universitas Scholarium
• Dalam bahasa Latin, universitas berarti
  organisasi atau korporasi
• Karena mahasiswa luar kota di Bologna mengalami
  sejumlah kesulitan (pemondokan, makan), pada
  tahun 1158, mereka membentuk universitas
  scholarium (korporasi pelajar)
• Mahasiswa berasal dari setiap negeri membentuk
  consiliarii masing-masing
• Mereka mengangkat rector scholarium (rektor
  pelajar) untuk menentukan kurikulum dan upah
  pengajar
• Dari Bologna, model universitas scholarium
  menyebar ke Padua, Roma, Montpellier, Salamanca,
  Perancis bagian selatan (umumnya di Eropa
  selatan)

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Zaman PertengahanStudium dan Universitas

• Universitas Magistrorum
• Di Paris, universitas dibentuk oleh para
  magister menjadi universitas magistrorum
  (korporasi pengajar)
• Pimpinan dan organisasi universitas dipegang
  oleh para magister
• Model universitas magistrorum menyebar ke Oxford,
  Cambridge, dan Eropa utara (dan ke jajahan
  mereka)
• Cessatio
• Cessastio adalah berhenti (mogok). Cessatio
  terjadi kalau timbul masalah serius
• Pada tahun 1229, terjadi cessatio di Universitas
  Paris selama hampir dua tahun. Banyak magister
  dan pelajar pergi ke Oxford

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Zaman PertengahanStudium dan Universitas

• Tradisi di Universitas Paris
• Metoda ajar belajar collatio (kuliah) dan lectio
  (penjelasan)
• Masa kuliah
• 1. St Remi (Okt) - Lent, dan
• 2. Easter - St. Pierre (29 Juni)
• Lulusan di bawah magister adalah determinatio
  (baccaulaureate) dengan hak mengajar di bawah
  supervisi magister
• Upacara di Universitas Paris
• Di Paris terdapat upacara wisuda berupa pidato
  pengukuhan (sekarang untuk guru besar), duduk di
  kursi magister dan memakai topi magister

15
Zaman PertengahanStudium dan Universitas

• Pembentukan Universitas Baru
• Mula-mula reputasi universitas bergantung kepada
  namanya yang terkenal
• Pengajar dari universitas kurang terkenal yang
  pindah ke universitas lebih terkenal sering
  harus menempuh ujian dulu
• Kaisar atau raja ingin mendirikan universitas.
  Agar memiliki reputasi, pendiriannya dilakukan
  melalui keputusan kaisar atau raja
• Sering terjadi bahwa kaisar atau raja sendiri
  yang menjadi kepala dari universitas itu dan
  menjabat sebagai chancellor
• Dengan demikian, orang yang sehari-hari
  mengepalai universitas menjadi vice
  chancellor. Di sejumlah universitas, tradisi ini
  masih berlaku sampai sekarang

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• University (from MD Pacific)
• In early medieval Europe all learning was
  contained in the monasteries, teaching was
  limited to the training of the clergy. When
  Charlemagne invited Alcuin of York to Aix to set
  up a palace school, Alcuins first task was to
  teach the emperor himself, as well as the young
  princes, to read and write.
• By the year 1000 the feudal
  system was established, some governments were
  stabilized, commerce revived, towns prospered.
  Learning was still a monopoly of the cathedral
  schools, with one noteworthy exception since
  early in the 10th century, scholars had gathered
  at Salerno in Italy to teach and study medicine.
• The Civitas Hippocratica, the
  city Hippocrates, was the first secular academic
  community in Europe and a direct offshoot of
  Arabic learning the legend of its founding by a
  Greek, a Latin, an Arab, and a Jewish physician
  symbolized the four non-ecclesiastic sources of
  knowledge. Although it became famous throughout
  Europe and was eventually called a university, it
  remained a medical school only and had no role in
  the new academe. The first true universities, and
  the models for those that followed, were those of
  Bologna and Paris.
• Both were born that founded they
  were already thriving centers of learning when
  they won notice from

17

• popes and kings. Within a century their
  counterparts were growing up everywhere,
  organized by students as in Bologna in Italy,
  southern France, and Spain, or by teachers as in
  Paris. The universities became the pets or
  princes the learned to balance the competing
  favors of church and state and became the third
  force catatan sacerdotium, emporium of regnum,
  and studium in the flowering of European culture
  in the Middle Ages.
• A center of learning was then a studium, a
  place of study. Until 1200 when medicine and
  philosophy were added, Bologna had only two
  branches of study, civil law and canon law. Its
  students were mostly men of mature years already
  holding church or state office unlike the lusty
  youths who late overran Pariss Left Bank and
  sober Oxford town, they took their pleasures
  discreetly. But they came in numbers that nearly
  doubled the towns population they were
  foreigners and without legal rights, and the
  Bolognese mulcted them mercilessly for their
  lodgings, food, textbooks, and teaching fees.
• The emperor Frederick I (Barbarossa), with
  four

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• doctors of law of Bologna to advise him, in 1158
  issued the first charter of student rights,
  freeing them from civil jurisdiction and placing
  them under their teachers authority. But in
  Bologna the teachers were Bolognese and unlikely
  to pass judgment against a fellow townsman.
  Finally for mutual protection the students
  organized themselves into a universitas, a term
  that meant merely the whole and was the name of
  any medieval guild.
• By threatening to leave in a body for some
  other city with teachers of law, the universitas
  scholarum, the guild of scholars, was able to fix
  reasonable prices for board and lodgings. They
  also dictated fees, lecture hours, curriculum,
  and permi9ssible absences for their teachers.
  Through their elected officers, a rector at the
  head of each guild and a council of
  representatives from each student nation who
  were empowered to remove the rector, the students
  became the administration of the Bologna studium.
• The pattern of student governance was
  followed by Padua, Rome, and seven other Italian
  universities born in the 13th to 15th centuries.
  It was adopted by Montpellier, with its strong
  faculties of medicine and law, and all the French
  universities south of the Loire, and was
  specified for Salamanca by Alfonso X (the
  Wise), Spains brilliant intellectual king, in
  his charter of 1254.
• A parallel birth began in Paris in the 12th
  century

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• when scholars flocked from everywhere in Europe
  to the Ile de la Cite to hear Peter Abelard
  discourse on theology and logic in the cathedral
  school of Notre-Dame. His disciples in turn
  became masters and, as in Bologna, the masters
  and scholars multiplied until they spilled from
  the Ile to the gabled wooden houses of the Petit
  Pont, the little bridge, and on to the left
  bank of the Seine.
• In Paris the masters rather than the
  scholars first organized a universitas as a curb
  on the chancellor, who was appointed by the
  bishop and had the sole power to grant a teaching
  license, often for an exorbitant bribe. The
  universitas magistrorum, the guild of masters,
  was able as a body to exclude even a chancellors
  licentiate from teaching withour their approval
  by refusing to admit him to the ruild. They
  instituted the inception, a ceremony at which the
  candidate delivered his inaugural address, was
  crowned with the magisterial cap, and seated in
  the magisterial chair. This was the first formal
  graduation and awarding of an academic degree.
• In 1200, after a bloody town-gown riot in
  which five students were killed, king Philip
  Augustus of France granted the masters and
  scholars of Paris full rights as clergy and
  placed them under the ecclesiastic rather than
  the civil courts. In 1211 Innocent III invited
  the masters

20

• guild of Paris to send a representative (proctor)
  to the papal court, and 20 years later Gregory IX
  with his bull Parens scientiarum, Mother of
  Learning, placed the papal seal on the
  universitys hardwon independence.
• The Spanish kings were among the first of
  many sovereigns who established universities, but
  a papal bull or an imperial charter was necessary
  to create a studium generale whose masters had
  the ius ubique docendi, the right to teach
  everywhere. Palencia, founded about 1212 by
  Alfonso IX, never gained this international
  standing Salamanca struggled under three kings,
  from 1220 to 1255, when with a papal bull it
  flowered into one of the leading universities in
  Europe.
• England first university was born when Henry
  II, in his quarrel with Thomas a Becket, forbade
  ecclesiastic travel across the Channel and
  summoned the English clergy home apparently in
  retaliation, France expelled all alien scholars.
  The English masters and scholars, hurrying home
  from Paris, gravitated toward the thriving
  commercial town of Oxford, which had no cathedral
  with its attendant school but had housed learned
  residents

21

• from time to time. With a charter from king John
  in 1200 but no papal recognition, Oxford won
  international acceptance on its repute alone.
• Some of the most distinguished medieval
  universities were borne out of the touchy pride
  of the scholarly communities which magnified
  quarrels into riots and resulted in mass
  migrations. Cambridge was founded in 1209 by 2000
  angry masters and scholars from Oxford when king
  John consented to the hanging of several scholars
  in retaliation for the death of a woman of the
  town. The entire students body of Bologna
  migrated twice, in 1220 and 1260, to Padua where
  the merchant princes of the Venetian republic
  eventually nurtured a greater university than its
  parent. Portugals university, founded in 1290,
  shuttled repeatedly between hostile Lisbon and
  isolated Coimbra until 1537, when it settled
  permanently in the provincial city.
• A university could alight anywhere it
  consisted only of masters and scholars and they
  had a universal language in Latin. Nothing
  physical remains of the 11th, 12th, or 13th
  century universities because they had nothing no
  land, buildings, classrooms, libraries. Textbooks
  were rented from booksellers, often by the page.
  Assemblies and doctoral inceptions were held in
  the cathedral or

22

• local church. A master taught in his own lodgings
  or hired a hall out of his students fees from
  about 1400, when the student nations began
  acquiring their own buildings or colleges, he
  might rent his classroom from them. All that
  remains of medieval Bologna is one such building,
  the College of Spain. Paduas handsome buildings
  date from the Renaissance Oxfords architectural
  treasures, such as Magdalen tower and the
  Bodleian, are Tudor.
• Merton College, dating back before 1300 and
  probably the oldest extant university building,
  was the first of the autonomous residential
  colleges, governed by their own faculty and
  fellows (i.e. graduates), which became Oxfords
  special contribution to the university concept.
  Elsewhere the college existed only as the
  property of a student nation or as a
  philanthropic hospice for poor students.
• The black gowns still worn as daily dress at
  Oxford and Cambridge, the billowing long gowns
  and colorful hoods that adorn an academic
  procession, are an evolved form of medieval
  scholarly dress the mortar-board is an 18th
  century English development of the square
  magisterial cap, or biretum.

23

• By the end of the middle ages 80
  universities had been established in Europe, from
  Prague and Heidelberg in the east to St. Andrews
  in Scotland, from Uppsala in Sweden and
  Copenhagen in Denmark to Valladolid and Barcelona
  in Spain. Spain had also given the New World its
  first universities at Lima in 1551, Mexico city
  in 1553, and Bogota 1572. Not all the medieval
  universities survived, and some remained modest.
  Of the great ones, Paris at its peak may have had
  7000 students, Oxford 3000.
• To their successors the studia of the Middle
  Ages bequeathed the name university to designate
  a community of mastersand scholars the concept
  of a curriculum of study leading within a stated
  period to examinations and a degree the form of
  governance, the organization of learning by
  faculties, and the ideal of academic freedom form
  control by the state.

24
Zaman PertengahanMetoda Deduktif dan Induktif

• Metoda Deduktif
• Dimulai dari yang telah diketahui (premis),
  melalui penalaran, mencapai konklusi
• Metoda ini digemari karena argumentasinya sangat
  kuat dan lagi pula mereka tidak usah melakukan
  kegiatan manual (kegiatan manual dilakukan oleh
  para budak)
• Asumsi
• Kelemahan metoda deduktif terletak pada kasus
  ketika yang diketahui itu (premis) tidak ada
• Diciptakan asumsi untuk dijadikan yang
  diketahui itu yakni dijadikan premis
• Asumsi tidak diuji, terserah mau diterima atau
  tidak

25
Zaman PertengahanMetoda Deduktif dan Induktif

• Belantara Asumsi
• Karena banyak hal tidak memiliki atau
  menemukan premis, maka asumsi bermunculan tanpa
  kendali
• Hal yang sama dapat diterangkan melalui asumsi
  yang berbeda-beda
• Parsimoni (Pisau Cukur Ockham)
• William Ockham mempopulerkan kegiatan untuk
  hanya memilih argumentasi yang paling sederhana
  untuk diterima dan yang lainnya ditolak (seperti
  dicukur)
• Prinsip untuk hanya menerima argumentasi yang
  paling sederhana dikenal sebagai parsimoni atau
  pisau cukur Ockham
• Parsimoni berlaku sampai sekarang

26

• OCKHAMSS RAZOR
• Ockhams razor, also spelled Occams razor, also
  called Law of Economy, or Law of Parsimony, name
  given to the principle stated by William of
  Ockham (1285-1349?), a Scholastic, that non sunt
  multiplicanda entia practer necessitatum i.e.
  entities are not to be multiplied beyond
  necessity.
• The principle was, in fact, invoked before
  Ockham by Durand de Saint-Pourçain, a French
  Dominican theologian and philosopher of dubious
  orthodoxy, who used it to explain that
  abstraction is the apprehension of some real
  entity, such as an Aristotelian cognitive
  species, an active intellect, or a disposition,
  all of which he spurned as unnecessary. Likewise,
  in science, Nicole dOresme, a 14th-century
  French physicist, invoked the law of economy, as
  did Galileo later, in defending the simplest
  hypothesis of the heavens. Other later scientists
  stated similar simplifying laws and principles.
• Ockham, however, mentioned the principle so
  frequently and employed it so sharply that it was
  called

27

• Ockhams frazor. He used it, for instance, to
  dispense with relations, which he held to be
  nothing distinct from their foundation in things
  with efficient causality, which he tended to view
  merely as regular succession with motion, which
  is merely the reappearance of a thing in a
  different place with psychological powers
  distinct for each mode of sense and with the
  presence of ideas in the mind of the Creator,
  which are merely the creatures themselves.

28
Zaman PertengahanMetoda Deduktif dan Induktif

• Kisah Gigi Kuda
• Dikisahkan pada tahun 1432, terjadi perdebatan di
  biara tentang berapa jumlah gigi di mulut kuda
• Semua karya kuno dan karya besar dibaca untuk
  dicari premis, tetapi belum juga ditemukan
• Dengan izin para tetua, biarawan muda membantu
  dengan menyeret kuda ke dalam ruangan dan
  menghitung giginya
• Dianggap sebagai cara hina, biarawan muda dan
  kuda diusir dan perdebatan berlangsung
• Setelah lelah berdebat, mereka berdamai dengan
  kesimpulan jumlah gigi di mulut kuda adalah
  suatu misteri, tidak mungkin diketahui

29

• THE STORY OF HORSE TEETH
• In the year of our Lord, 1432, there arose a
  grievous quarrel among the brethren over the
  number of teeth in the mouth of a horse. For
  thirteen days the disputation raged without
  ceasing. All the ancient books and chronicles
  were fetched out, and wonderful and ponderous
  erudition was made manifest. At he beginning of
  the fourteenth day a youthful friar of goodly
  bearing asked his learned superiors for
  permission to add a word, and straightaway, to
  the wonder of the disputants, whose deep wisdom
  he sorely vexed, he beseeched them in a manner
  coarse and unheard of, to look in the mouth of a
  horse and find answers to their questionings. At
  this, their dignity being grievously hurt, they
  waxed exceedingly wroth and joining in a mighty
  uproar they flew upon him and smote him hip and
  thigh and cast him out forthwith. For, they said,
  Surely Satan hath tempted this bold neophyte to
  declare unholy and unheard-of ways of finding
  truth, contrary to all the teachings of the
  fathers. After many days of grievous strife the
  dove of peace set on the assembly, and they, as
  one man, declaring the problem to be an
  everlasting mystery because of a dearth of
  historical and theological evidence thereof, so
  ordered the same writ down.
• Dari Francis Bacon as cited by CEK Mees,
  Scientific thought and Social Reconstruction,
  American Scientist 22 (1934) 13-24.

30
Zaman PertengahanMetoda Deduktif dan Induktif

• Metoda Induktif
• Diperlukan metoda induktif untuk menemukan jumlah
  gigi di mulut kuda, sehingga metoda induktif
  mulai digunakan
• Kelemahan terjadi lompatan induktif yang membuat
  argumentasi lemah
• Penganut Robert Grosseteste, Roger Bacon, John
  Duns Scotus, William Ockham
• Bahaya Metoda Induktif
• Metoda induktif dapat menghasilkan sesuatu yang
  bertentangan dengan doktrin penguasa
• Contoh Kopernikus menemukan sistem heliosentris
  yang bertentangan dengan doktrin katedral (yang
  geosentris)

31
Zaman PertengahanAlkemi

• Terjemahan
• Terjemahan tulisan Arab ke Latin juga mencakup
  alkemi
• Alkemi menyerap berbagai sumber termasuk dari
  Cina (alkemi Tao)
• Buku Jabir
• Pada 1310, Jabir menerbitkan 4 buku alkemi
• Logam memiliki prinsip terbakar dan karatan dari
  belerang serta prinsip cair dan lebur dari
  merkuri
• Paduan yang cocok dari belerang dan merkuri dapat
  menghasilkan emas
• Eksoterik dan esoterik sama majunya
• Ada kalanya menghasilkan bahan kimia baru

32

• ALCHEMY
• Alchemy, the pseudoscience whose aims were to
  transform base metals such as lead or copper into
  silver or gold. Although such attempts have
  involved chemical procedures, evidence linking
  the pseudoscience with the development of
  chemistry itself remains inconclusive.
• The theory that five elements (air, water,
  earth, fire, space) in various combinations
  constitute all matter was postulated in almost
  identical form in ancient China, India, and
  Greece. Further, the world of matter was seen to
  function by means of antagonistic, opposing
  forcese.g., hot and cold, wet and dry,
  positive and negative, male and female. Under
  their similar astrological heritages,
  philosophers of these three cultures found
  correspondences among the elements, planets, and
  metals.
• Astrologers believed that events in the
  macrocosm of the natural world were reflected in
  the human microcosm, and vice versa. Thus, under
  the proper astrological influences, a
  perfection, or healing, of lead into gold
  might occur, just as the human soul could achieve
  a perfect state in heaven. The artisan in his
  laboratory could perhaps hasten this process by
  careful nurture and long heating, by kill-

33

• ing the metal and then reviving it in a finer
  form.
• While the practical alchemists invented and used
  many laboratory apparatuses and procedures that
  in modified form are used today, they were still
  essentially artisans and did not wish to reveal
  their trade secrets. In an effort to preserve the
  esoteric nature of their practices, they devised
  many concealing, symbolic names for the materials
  with which they work. In addition, Greek writers
  usually ascribed their manuscripts to some god,
  hero, king, or philosopher of old as a further
  concealment.
• The confusing tendencies were intensified as the
  mystically minded began to develop alchemical
  ideas. As Hellenistic philosophy shifted more and
  more from the technical scientific viewpoint to
  the emphasis on divine revelation of Gnosticism,
  Neoplatonism, and Christianity, the alchemical
  writings became esoteric to the point of total
  obscurity. In time the Chinese practitioners, who
  sought to make gold not for its own sake but as
  an elixir of immortality, also came to emphasize
  the esoteric aspects at the expense of all
  practical technique, and the art degenerated into
  a mass of superstition. Alchemy in India
  eventually met with a similar fate.
• Arabic alchemy is as mysterious in its origins

34

• as the other currents. It presumably migrated to
  Egypt during the Hellenistic period, where it
  became incorporated into the work of the first
  alchemist whose identity has been authenticated,
  Zomisos of Panopolis. Through their contact with
  China, the Arabs adopted the use of a transmuting
  medicine, the mysterious substance that appears
  later in European alchemy as the philosophers
  stone. Translations of the Arabic works of
  ar-Razi (c. 850-923 or 924) by Christian scholars
  in the 12th century led to a revival of the art
  in Europe. By 1300 the subject was being
  discussed by the leading philosophers,
  scientists, and theologians of the day. Important
  alchemical discoveries of the period include the
  mineral acids and alcohol. Medical chemistry, or
  pharmacy, emerged from this revival two centuries
  later under the influence of Paracelsus
  (1493-1541), a Swiss-German alchemist.
• Renaissance physicists and chemists began to
  discount the possibility of transmutation on the
  basis of a renewed interest in Greek atomism. The
  chemical facts that had been accumulated by the
  alchemists were now reinterpreted and made the
  basis upon which modern chemistry was erected. It
  was not until the 19th

35

• century, however, that the possibility of
  chemical gold-making was conclusively
  contradicted by scientific evidence. Sporadic
  revivals of alchemical philosophies and
  techniques persisted into the 20th century.

36
Zaman PertengahanFilsafat Scholaticism

• Filsafat Scholasticism
• Pada zaman pertengahan, sejumlah biarawan menjadi
  ahli filsafat
• Di antaranya St. Agustin, St. Anselmus, St.
  Thomas Aquinas
• Mereka menggunakan filsafat untuk menerangkan
  agama dan doktrin katedral
• Aliran filsafat mereka dikenal sebagai
  scholaticism
• Thomas Aquinas Eternal law, natural law, human
  law, divine law
• Scholaticism dan Induksi
• Scholasticism tidak menolak metoda induksi dengan
  syarat
• Syaratnya adalah seluruh kegiatan induktif tidak
  boleh bertentangan dengan doktrin katedral

37
Zaman PertengahanFilsafat Scholasticism

• Di Universitas
• Metoda
• Pilih buku terkenal disebut auctor
• Perisksa semua dokumen lain tentang itu
• Cari perbedaan
• Perbedaan dianalisis (kata dan logik) untuk
  dipertemukan
• Genre
• Dua genre quetiones dan summa
• Quetiones yakni pertanyaan untuk dicari pro dan
  dan kontra
• Summa yakni sistem semua pertanyaan yang dapat
  menjawab semua pertanyaan

38
Zaman PertengahanFilsafat Scholasticism

• Sekolah
• Pertama adalah lectio yakni pengajar membaca
  tetapi tidak boleh bertanya
• Kedua adalah disputatio yakni perdebatan
• Biasa yakni pertanyaan sudah diumumkan terlebih
  dahulu dan dipersiapkan
• Quodlibetal yakni pertanyaan pelajar tanpa
  diumumkan terlebih dahulu sehingga tanpa
  persiapan
• Pengajar menjawab dan pelajar menyanggah bolak
  balik
• Ada yang mencatat sehingga pengajar dapat membuat
  ringkasan untuk diumumkan besok hari

39
Zaman KebangkitanAbad ke-15 sampai Abad ke-18

• Karakteristik Zaman
• Disebut sebagai Renaissance, banyak perubahan
  terjadi pada zaman ini
• Kemajuan di bidang observasi dan eksperimen
• Sintesis agung ilmu dengan matematika
• Metoda ilmiah
• Alkemi menjadi kimia
• Kemajuan di bidang matematika dan ilmu alam
• Kemajuan di bidang pertukangan
• Penjelajahan
• Terjadi penjelajahan ke seluruh dunia
• Columbus tiba di benua Amerika
• Vasco da Gama mengelilingi Afrika ke Timur
• Magellan mengelilingi bumi
• James Cook sampai ke Australia
• Belanda sampai ke Banten

40
Zaman KebangkitanObservasi dan Eksperimen

• Observasi Ilmiah
• Observasi astronomi melalui teropong dilakukan
  oleh Kopernikus, Galileo, Tycho Brahe
• Lahir teori heheliosentris (berbeda dengan
  geosentris) dan ditemukan bulan di planet
  saturnus
• Heliosentris ditentang oleh Katedral
• (kini dilindungi dengan kebebasan akademik)
• Temuan
• Kopernikus mengemukakan sistem heliosentri dengan
  garis edar lingkaran
• Kepler (dengan data Tycho Brahe) menemukan garis
  edar berbentuk elips
• Galileo menemukan bulan di planet Jupiter melalui
  teropong

41
Zaman KebangkitanObservasi dan Eksperimen

• Eksperimen Ilmiah
• Galileo menjatuhkan benda dari menara Pisa dan
  menemukan bahwa benda ringan dan berat tiba di
  tanah dalam waktu yang sama (membantah asumsi
  Aristoteles)
• Galileo melakukan percobaan tentang gerak benda
  pada bidang miring dan menyusun rumus gerak
  benda
• Dinamika Gerak (Gallileo)
• Sebelum Newton, Galileo menemukan dinamika gerak
• Termasuk rumus gerak, gerak parabola, gaya
  sentripetal

42

• SCHOLASTICISM
• The philosophical systems and speculative
  tendencies of various medieval Christian thinkers
  who, working on a background of fixed religious
  dogma, sought to solve anew general philosophical
  problems (as of faith and reason, will and
  intellect, realism and nominalism, and the
  provability of the existence of God), initially
  under the influence of the mystical and
  intuitional tradition of patristic philosophy and
  especially Augustinianism and later under that of
  Aristotle.
• In the early Middle Ages the authority of the
  Church Fathers still remain important especially
  that of the Pseudo-Dionysus, with his
  hierarchically ordered cosmos. (Pseudo-Dionysus
  wrote under the name of Dionysus the
  Areopagiteone of St. Pauls conventsaround AD
  500 in order to clothe his own works in a
  borrowed authority.) The impact of the
  controversial theologian Peter Abelard in the
  11th century, however, brought logic to the
  forefront of scholastic philosophy and rendered
  reliance upon the authority of the Fathers alone
  inadequate.
• For such medieval theologians as Albertus
  Magnus and Thomas Aquinas, reasoned assumed an
  important role in theology, not as the antithesis
  of faith, but as its supplement. Thus, the
  scholastics made a systematic attempt to map out
  the field of theology as a science and

43

• in so doing developed new treatises on matters
  that had previously belonged to preaching (e.g.
  the sacraments).
• They began to prevail over the more contemplative
  and monastic schools, which held that theology
  considered in wisdom rather than in science. They
  borrowed freely from the philosophy of Aristotle,
  which came to them largely via the Islamic
  philosophers Averoes (1126-98) and Avicenna
  (980-1037). They aimed at a synthesis of learning
  in which theology surmounted the hierarchy of
  knowledge.
• The primary methods of teaching were the lectio
  (lecture) and the disputatio (formal debate),
  which consisted largely in the presentation and
  analysis of syllogisms. Although there was fairly
  general agreement as to method and aim,
  Scholastics did not always agree among themselves
  on points of doctrines. Distinct schools of
  theology emerged, the most influential being
  those of the Franciscan Duns Scotus, for whom a
  world created in Gods groundless, absolute
  freedom could exhibit no necessary reasons, and
  the Dominican St. Thomas Aquinas, for whom faith,
  in general, presupposed and therefore required
  natural reason. The Thomist position tended
  increasingly to prevail, and Aquinas was
  eventually declared common doctor of the church
  and consider-

44

• ed the repository of sound and orthodox doctrine.
  His Summa Theologiae (Summary of Theology)
  became the standard textbook of theology, and the
  era of the great commentaries on Aquinas began.
  One of the most famous was that of a 16th-century
  Dominican, Cardinal Thomas de Vio, commonly known
  as Cajetan.
• The polemical atmosphere of the Reformation and
  Counter-Reformation introduced a new factor.
  While Protestant theologians stressed scriptural
  and patristic authority and despised the
  Scholastics as logic-chopping obscurantists,
  Catholic theologians came to rely on the latter
  more and more heavily. The Metaphysical
  Disputations of the late 16th-century Jesuit
  Francisco Suares, however, reveal a concern for
  the spirit rather than the letter of
  Scholasticism. Rather than commentary on Aquinas,
  his work is an original philosophical treatises
  inspired by Aquinas and others.
• The first author to try to extract a philosophy
  (apart from theology) from Aquinas was the
  Dominican John of St. Thomas in the 17th century
  with his Cursus Philosophicus, and this example
  was much followed. The medieval synthesis was
  still further fragmented as new treatises were
  devised on such subjects as ecclesiology,
  apologetics, moral theology, and cosmology.
  Nevertheless, the medieval were retained

45

• as a point of reference, and these philosophers
  and theologians saw themselves as the heirs to
  the Scholastic tradition. Th18th and 19th
  centuries were a period of decadent
  Scholasticism. The tradition survived as a form
  of emasculated Aristotelianism out of touch with
  contemporary thought and science, it continues to
  be taught in Latin, providing what amounted to a
  memory test for Catholic seminarians.
• A Thomist revival was announced and stimulated
  by Pope Leo XIIIs encyclical Aeterni Puris
  (1879) so called Neoscholasticism became the
  dominant school in the Roman Catholic
  universities, although it proved at first
  incapable of dialogue with contemporary
  philosophy and played a conservative role in the
  Modernist crisis of the early years of the 20th
  century. Subsequently, however, Neoscholasticism
  and Neothomism earned renewed respect on the
  basis of the historical scholarship of the French
  Christian philosopher Etienne Gilson and others,
  who traced the original contributions of the
  Scholastics and their influence on subsequent
  philosophy.

46
Zaman KebangkitanObservasi dan Eksperimen

• Teori Newton
• Newton mengemukakan teori mekanika kelembaman
  dan gravitasi
• Merupakan salah satu temuan terbesar di bidang
  ilmu
• Sintesis Agung
• Observasi, eksperimen, dan teori Newton
  menggunakan matematika sehingga terjadi sintesis
  di antara ilmu alam dengan matematika
• Sintesis ini sangat produktif sehingga
  menghasilkan kemajuan yang pesat di bidang ilmu
• Matematika
• Mengalami kemajuan yang pesat, dari ahli
  matematika Italia, ke Perancis, dan ke Jerman

47
Zaman KebangkitanObservasi dan Eksperimen

• Alkemi
• Alkemi eksoterik dan esoterik terus berkembang
• Mereka mencari suatu bahan yang dinamakan elixir
  (al-iksir) atau philosophers stone yang
  dipercaya dapat menjadi katalisator pembuatan
  emas dari bahan murah
• Elixir dapat membuat orang panjang umur
• Pembuatan emas tidak mereka peroleh, tetapi
  mereka menemukan sejumlah bahan baru
• Kegiatan mereka mendekati kegiatan kimia
• Bernard Trevisan
• Ada kisah tentang Bernard Trevisan yang sejak
  muda berusaha membuat emas tetapi tidak berhasil
  (agaknya fiktif)

48
Zaman PertengahanObservasi dan Eksperimen

• Paracelsus dan Pengobatan
• Nama aslinya adalah Theophratus Philippus
  Aureolus Bombastus von Hohenheim, kemudian
  menggunakan nama Paracelsus (1493-1541)
• Anak seorang dokter dan kemudian belajar di
  Universitas Basel dan menjadi dokter
• Paracelsus percaya bahwa bahan dari alkemi dapat
  dijadikan obat sehingga bertengkar dengan para
  dokter dan farmasi yang masih menggunakan
  pengobatan cara kuno
• Ketika diangkat menjadi guru besar medik di
  Universitas Basel, pada tahun 1527, di depan
  umum, Paracelsus membakar buku pengobatan kuno
• Dimusuhi banyak orang, Paracelsus pergi
  meninggalkan Basel dan berkelana

49

• The most important name in this period is
  Philippus Aurolius Paracelsus (Theophrastus
  Bombastus von Hohenheim, 1493-1541) who cast
  alchemy into a new form, rejecting some of the
  occultism that had accumulated over the years and
  promoting the use of observations and experiments
  to learn about the human body. He rejected
  Gnostic traditions, but kept much of the
  Hermetical, neo-Platonic, and Pythagorean
  philosophies however, Hermetical science had so
  much Aristotelian theory that his rejection of
  Gnosticism was practically meaningless. In
  particular, Paracelsus rejected the magic
  theories of Agrippa and Flamel. He did not think
  of himself as magician, and scorned those who
  did.
• Paracelsus pioneered the use chemicals and
  minerals in medicine, and wrote Many have said
  of Alchemy, that it is for the making of gold and
  silver. For me such is the aim, but to consider
  only what virtue and power may lie in medicines.
  His hermetical views were that sickness and
  health in the body relied on the harmony of man
  the microcosm and Nature the macrocosm. He took
  an approach different from those before him,
  using this analogy not in the manner of
  soul-purification but in the manner that humans
  must have certain balances of minerals in their
  bodies, and that certain illnesses of the

50

• body had chemical remedies that could cure them.
  While his attempt of treating diseases with such
  remedies as Mercury might seem ill-advised from a
  modern point of view, his basic idea of
  chemically produced medicines has stood time
  surprisingly well.

51
Zaman PertengahanObservasi dan Eksperimen

• Paracelsus dan Alkemi
• Paracelsus percaya bahwa alkemi dapat mengubah
  bahan alami dan menghasilkan bahan baru untuk
  keperluan baru
• Walaupun gagal membuat emas, para alkemi berhasil
  menemukan sejumlah bahan baru
• Alkemi Menjadi Kimia
• Dibantu dengan teori ilmiah, alkemi memudar dan
  hilang
• Dirintis oleh Lavoisier, muncul kimia yang
  mengenal teori dan eksperimen di laboratorium
• Pembetulan Kalender
• Pada tahun 1527, Paus Gregorius membetulkan
  kalender (ada lompatan 10 hari di bulan Oktober)

52

Zaman PertengahanObservasi dan Eksperimen

• Sistem Metrik
• Pada tahun 1798 pada kongres ilmu
  internasional, satuan meter diterima sebagai
  sistem metrik yang baru.
• Satu meter adalah 1/10.000.000 bagian dari ¼
  keliling bumi dari kutub ke kutub.
• Dari satuan meter, ditentukan satuan liter dan
  kilogram (massa 1 liter air)
• Sistem metrik menggunakan kelipatan 10, mili-,
  centi-, deci- (Latin) dan deca-, hecto-, kilo-
  (Yunani)

53

• In 1788, a year in which there were 2000
  units of measure current in France (most of them
  used only in one locality), a commission of six
  scientists was set up to consider how to
  establish a uniform system. Its members, who
  included Coulomb, Laplace and Lavoisier, could
  hardly have been more distinguished. It would
  start work in 1789, exactly a thousand years
  after Charlemagne had established uniform
  measures throughout his empire (some of which
  still survived in Britain).
• The Commissions first decision was to make
  a completely new start, with some constant of
  physics as its base. There were two possibilities
  (neither of which would have been open to
  Charlemagne). One was to make use of Christiaan
  Huygens discovery that the period of oscillation
  of a pendulum depended only on its length (so
  that, for instance, the standard could be the
  length of a pendulum with a period of one
  second). The other possibility was to base the
  standard on the length of a meridian (that is, a
  great circle passing through the two poles). The
  National Assembly could not make up its mind on
  8 May 1790 it decided for the pendulum on 30
  March 1791, for a quarter of meridian (that is,
  the distance between a pole and the equator). At
  the same time Lavoisier had devised a means for
  accurately determining the weight of a prescribed
  unit volume of water this would then provide a
  new measure of weight, linked to that for length.

54

• At the end of the day the pendulum was
  rejected, partly because it lacked charismabut
  also for the good scientific reason (already
  known to Newton) that gravity varies slightly
  over the worlds surface. The problem, then, was
  to measure the meridian the only practical way
  to do this was to find a meridian, running
  precisely from north to south and joining two
  coastal locations. The difference in the two
  latitudes (determined astronomically) then
  provides the means for measuring the length of
  the quarter-meridian.
• Conveniently France proved to be the only
  country in the world where a meridian could be
  found satisfying the requisite conditions even
  more conveniently it could be chosen to pass
  through the Paris Observatory. In fact, the
  meridian so chosen intersects the coast of the
  Mediterranean just inside Spain, but with a
  little diplomacy French surveyors could be
  allowed to start their work there.
• this was exactly how the operation was
  planned two surveyors would map the line of the
  meridian by means of the triangulation process
  established by Snel two centuries earlier. One
  would start at the north end, and the other at
  the south, to meet, by prearrangement, somewhere
  in the middle. And in 1791, Lavoisier, who has
  become Treasurer of the Academy, arranged for the
  necessary finance.

55

• Two astronomers, Pierre Méchain (1744-1804)
  and Jean-Baptiste Delambre (1749-1822), were
  appointed to the task and equipped with a new
  instrument, superior to the English theodolite,
  invented by the chevalier de Borda in 1780. The
  two could hardly have been more different, as
  would be reflected in the way they carried out
  their work and surmonted the many obstacles
  encountered Méchain, who would work north from
  the coast near Barcelona, was pessimistic and
  withdrawn, while Delambre, who would work south
  from Dunkirk, was optimistic and outgoing.
• The distanced to be covered by each were
  measured in toises, then the unit most commonly
  used (but due to be superseded as a result of the
  task in hand). Because the Spanish sector was
  almost unknown, Méchain was assigned much the
  shorter distance, 170,000 toises, where Delambre
  got 380,000. The two would then meet in the small
  town of Rodez, somewhere south of the Dordogne.
• The modus operandi was to carry out
  successive triangulations by sighting standard
  signals, in the form fo large coloured boards,
  placed on lical high points, sometimes natural
  (e.g. the summit of a hill), sometimes man-made
  (e.g. the top of a bell-tower). These then
  defined stations for locating succeeding
  triangulation points. In addition, there would be
  five astronomical stations, located by
  star-sights as with sea navigation. Two of these
  were the terminal points, Dunkirk and Barcelona,
  a third was the Panthéon in Paris, and the

56

• remaining, Carcassonne in south, and Evaux in
  central France. The result was that there would
  be four separate stages in measuring the distance
  by triangulation.
• The time was hardly propitous for such an
  undertaking the French Revolution did not make
  life easier for Méchain and Delambre, and
  suspicious local people, without any idea of what
  was going on, obstructed the work when their help
  was needed. With the rudimentary infrastructure
  of the time, many triangulation points were
  almost inaccessibleand things were worse when
  the weather was bad.
• The operation was carried out with two
  baselines, each 12 kilometres long. This distance
  had to measured with extreme accuarcy othrwose
  the whole project would be worthless. The was the
  problem of finding two areas, along the meridian,
  each with a straight road across perfectly flat
  terrain. In the north this was the main road
  between Melun and Lieusaint, just south of Paris.
  Delambre built two stone pyramids, 25 metres
  high, at each end even so, 500 trees had to be
  cut down to clear the line of sight between them.
  Equally thorough preparations were needed for the
  southern baseline near Perpignan.
• The actual measurement, taking some seven
  weeks in the early summer of 1789, was carried
  out by olacing, successively end to end, four
  identical platinum rules of standard length.
  Endless care was to taken to protect them from
  sunlight, to ensure perfect alignment and fit

57

• between two successive rulers. Using a system
  devised by Lavoisier (who by this time had lost
  his head to the guillotine), a copper ruler, with
  a different coefficient of expansion, was used
  for corrections taking into account changes
  caused by heat in the length of the platinum
  standard. Some idea of the care taken is shown by
  an average rate of progress of 20 metres per
  hour. At the end of the day, when two baselines
  were compared as a result of the triangulations
  carried out across the distance seperating them,
  the error was of the order of 3 centimetere over
  a distance of 12 kilometresand astonishing
  degree of accuracy.
• Méchain and Delambre were busy for more than
  six years, but while they were still at work, the
  Commission in Paris was also involved. First, it
  had to decide on new names for the measures, and
  then how they were to ber relatied. To ensure
  that the new system could be used
  internationally, new terms were coined from Latin
  and Greek roots (following the practice, recently
  adopted, for the newly discovered chemical
  elements). The key units, named mètre, litre and
  gramme, could be subdivided into smaller units,
  defined by Latin suffixes, milli-, centi- and
  déci-, and consolidated into large units, with
  Greek suffixes, déca, hecto and kilo. At the same
  time the liquid measure, the litre, was defined
  as 1 cubic décimetre, so that the weight of a
  litre of water would then define a kilogramme.

58

• In 1798, the year of completion, Napoleon who
  would become first consul of France a year later,
  had led French armies in conquests that radically
  changed the political alignment of Europe.
  Talleyrand, the French Foreign Minister, acting
  on the principle of carpe diem, convened what was
  effectively the first ever international
  scientific congress. Its agenda had one main
  item the adoption of the new metric system.
• The powers invited to the congress were
  either neutral or allied, the later consisting
  largely of recently constituted French puppet
  states, such as the Cutch Bavarian Republic.
  England, which on 1 August 1798 had destroyed the
  French fleet at the battle of Aboukir, was not
  invited, nor were Prussia and the United States.
  The English-speaking world, with its archaic
  system of weights and measures, is still paying
  the price. The rest of the world has had the
  benefit of the metric system for more than 200
  years.

59
Zaman PertengahanObservasi dan Eksperimen

• Rekapitulasi Perkembangan
• Kopernikus heliosentrik (tata surya)
• Kepler (dengan data dari Tycho Brahe) gerakan
  benda langit adalah elips
• Galileo Galilei dinamika gerak (percepatan jatuh
  dan sentrifugal, gerak parabola dan proyektil),
  bulan di Jupiter
• Isaac Newton teori gravitasi
• Dampak
• Bumi hanya planet kecil, arti manusia di jagad
  raya menjadi kecil
• Komet bisa diterangkan, banyak tahayul lenyap
• Tuhan berurusan dengan jagad raya yang besar
  sehingga urusan manusia hanya bagian kecil

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Zaman kebangkitanMetoda Ilmiah

• Metoda Ilmiah Descartes
• Rene Descartes menulis Risalat Metoda
• Ada empat aturan pada metoda ilmiah ini yang
  dimulai dari meragukan apa yang belum diyakini
  secara pasti
• Ragukan masa kini, masa lalu, masa depan, dan
  pikiran orang lain
• Bahkan Descartes meragukan keberadaan dirinya
  sendiri. Katanya cogito ergo sum (saya berpikir
  maka saya ada)
• Pengaruh Metoda Descartes
• Aturan Descartes ini berpengaruh sampai sekarang
• Metoda ini digunakan pada metodologi penelitian

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• METHODIC DOUBT
• Methodic doubt in Cartesian philosophy, a way of
  searching for certainty by systematically though
  tentatively doubting everything. First, all
  statements are classified according to type and
  source of knowledgee.g. knowledge from
  tradition, empirical knowledge, and mathematical
  knowledge. Then, examples from each class are
  examined. If a way can be found to doubt the
  truth of any statement, then all other statements
  of that type are also set aside as dubitable. The
  doubt is methodic because it assures systematic
  completeness, but also because no claim is made
  that allor even that anystatements in a
  dubitable class are really false or that one must
  or can distrust them in an ordinary sense. The
  method is to set aside as conceivably false all
  statements and types of knowledge that are not
  indubitably true. The hope is that, by
  eliminating all statements and types of knowledge
  the truth of which can be doubted in any way, one
  will find some indubitable certainties.
• In the first half of the 17th century, the
  French

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• Rationalist Rene Descartes used methodic doubt to
  reach certain knowledge of self-existence in the
  act of thinking, expressed in the indubitable
  proposition cogito, ergo sum (I think, therefore
  I am). He found knowledge from tradition to be
  dubitable because authorities disagree empirical
  knowledge dubitable because of illusions,
  hallucinations, and dreams and mathematical
  knowledge dubitable because people made errors in
  calculating. He proposed an all-powerful,
  deceiving demon a a way of involving universal
  doubt. Although the demon could deceive men
  regarding which sensations and ideas are truly of
  the world, or could even make them think that
  there is an external world when there is none,
  the demon could not make men think that they
  exist when they do not.

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Zaman KebangkitanMetoda Ilmiah Aturan Descartes

• Aturan 1
• Jangan menerima sesuatu sebagai kebenaran selama
  kita tidak mengetahui secara jelas bahwa sesuatu
  itu adalah demikian
• (ini dikenal sebagai methodic doubt)
• Aturan 2
• Membagi kesulitan yang sedang diperiksa ke dalam
  sebanyak mungkin bagian dan seperlu mungkin untuk
  memperoleh pemecahan yang pantas
• (kemudian dikritik sebagai reduksionis karena
  melihat sesuatu dari bagian-bagian dan bukan
  secara menyeluruh)

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Zaman KebangkitganMetoda Ilmiah

• Aturan 3
• Mengatur pikiran kita menurut urutan sehingga
  dengan memulai penelitian pada obyek yang paling