Geographic Information Systems Applications in Natural Resource Management

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Geographic Information SystemsApplications in
Natural Resource Management

• Chapter 15
• Trends in GIS Technology

Michael G. Wing Pete Bettinger
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Chapter 15 Objectives

• Common trends related to GIS technology, and how
  these might be applied in natural resource
  management,
• Opportunities for strengthening GIS technology
  and applications within natural resource
  management organizations, and
• Current and potential technological developments
  that might promote or hinder the advancement of
  GIS as an effective problem-solving tool.

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GIS technology is constantly evolving

• Software and hardware advances
• New types of data collection techniques and
  devices
• New types of applications of technology
• GIS is gradually becoming a technology that is
  being used in most segments of society, not just
  natural resources
• Chapter 15 asks where to from here?

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Integrated raster/vector software

• GIS software packages were previously defined as
  being a raster or vector software package
• Packages were typically designed for one data
  structure and could perhaps dabble in another
• ArcInfo workstation and ArcView 3 vector
• This trend has recently changed as most packages
  now have capabilities in both raster and vector
• Previously, the strong differences between raster
  and vector data structures prevented integration
• In addition, software manufacturers created their
  own proprietary data formats that

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As software and hardware advances

• Perhaps a fully integrated system, one that
  offers a full suite of tools for both raster and
  vector data will emerge
• Vector databases used for image classification
• Raster databases used for buffering, overlay, and
  proximity operations
• This system would allow users to seamlessly use
  raster or vector data for GIS operations

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Linkage of GIS Databases to other digital data

• Connecting mapped data to other information
  sources, such as digital photography, video, or
  text-based information sources
• Allows us to learn more about a mapped feature

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Linking GIS data to other information
Figure 15.1. A GIS database of urban trees, and
an associated hyperlinked picture of a tree
(courtesy of Andrew Saunders).
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High-resolution databases

• Precision forestry and precision agriculture have
  become recognized disciplines
• Applications seek to use digital technologies for
  improving or making more efficient natural
  resource management activities
• The term precision agriculture has been in use
  for over ten years while precision forestry has
  recently gained popular usage
• The first formal recognition was at the 2001 UW
  Precision Forestry Symposium

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Precision agriculture applications

• Using GPS as a navigational aid for farm
  equipment
• Capturing remotely sensed imagery to describe the
  status of soil properties (to determine the need
  for fertilizer or pesticides)
• Using digital aerial photographs to record crop
  plantings and outcomes

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Precision forestry applications

• Using electronic distance measuring tools to
  capture precise spatial positions of forest
  landscape features
• Capturing precise and timely satellite imagery to
  assist in monitoring threats to forest health
  (fire, disease, floods)
• Developing precise, fine-scale DEMs to identify
  steep forested areas that may be susceptible to
  landslide activity

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Challenges for precision forestry

• In contrast to precision agriculture
  applications, forestry landscapes have dense
  canopy cover and typically mountainous terrain
• This limits the use of technologies such as GPS
  or airborne remote sensing technologies
• With GPS, scheduling data collection during
  leaf-off periods or times of strong satellite
  geometry can improve reception

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Raster data collection appears promising

• Data collection and processing techniques
  becoming more efficient and affordable
• IKONOS
• 1-4m resolution
• Color aerial photography at 1m resolution can be
  captured and made available to clients within
  days

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IKONOS satellite image at 4 m resolution of
Copper Mountain located in theColorado Rocky
Mountains(Image courtesy of GeoEye)
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Managing raster data

• Raster databases have sometimes been prohibitive
  to organizations because of their size
• Hard drives are becoming larger and faster but
  raster data can still quickly consume space
• With proper management, raster data have great
  potential to assist organizations that manage
  large land areas
• Keeping land cover information current
• Facilitating temporal analysis of land cover
  change
• The challenge will be in deciding how often to
  acquire new data and how to integrate new data
  into existing databases (update questions)
• This is a strong contrast from the recent past
  when organizations often struggled to create
  and/or locate data

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Distributing GIS capabilities to field offices

• The traditional model of GIS use in organizations
  was a centralized office that would attempt to
  provide GIS services and support for all parts of
  the organization
• Problems with this model
• Accessibility
• Timeliness
• Communication
• Todays trend the distributed model

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Distributed GIS capabilities

• Makes GIS available to many parts of an
  organization including field offices
• Many factors have contributed to this model
• More people graduating from colleges and
  universities with GIS training
• Less expensive hardware
• More user-friendly software
• Benefits include enhanced field office
  productivity (timeliness, removing communication
  barriers, and giving employees greater
  involvement in organizational activities) and a
  reduction in the centralized GIS office
• This model will likely continue to grow in
  popularity

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Internet data availability

• The Internet has been a primary contributor to
  GIS popularity
• Many public organizations make data available for
  download
• Not long ago, data needed to be physically
  transported on a storage device (carried or
  mailed)
• Some organizations still charge for data transfer
  costs
• Some larger databases (raster DOQs) still cant
  be efficiently made available for large land
  areas
• Data compression techniques will likely improve
  to accommodate large raster databases

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Portable devices for data display and capture

• Handheld and personal data assistants (PDAs) have
  become increasingly common for collecting forest
  inventory and landscape data
• GPS receivers can be coupled with hand-held
  devices to show locations and store measurements
• DOQs or DRGs can be displayed in the background
  to locate features or verify measurements
• These technologies are reducing the use of field
  data books and the need to manually record
  measurements
• Has increased the rate at which data can be
  integrated into a digital database
• Reduces the opportunity for human error
• Handheld data collectors are still expensive
  (1,000 to 5,000) while PDAs are generally
  inexpensive (200-300)
• Still difficult to place complete trust in these
  instruments for data collection

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Standards for the exchange of GIS databases

• The Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC) has
  specified standards for data cataloging
• These standards guide the construction of
  metadata data about data
• All federal agencies are required to comply, most
  state agencies that distribute spatial data have
  also adopted data standards
• Private organizations are not bound to data
  cataloging standards
• Acquisition and modification of GIS data may go
  undocumented
• ArcInfo coverages and ArcView shapefiles are the
  most prevalent GIS formats made available by
  organizations
• DXF files are also popular for schematics and
  engineering related databases
• Most GIS software allows users to import, or at
  least view, data in several different formats

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Legal issues related to GIS

• Privacy, liability, accessibility, and licensing
  (discussed in depth in Chapter 16) are all hot
  topics within GIS at present
• Privacy
• Spatial data are being collected about all of us
  at an ever-increasing rate
• Address, family, income, home value, purchasing
  decisions
• Organizations are purchasing and using this data
  to help direct advertising
• Mailings, phone calls, e-mails
• GIS has become a tool, like it or not, to foster
  business
• As private organizations continue to forge new
  ground in the collection, sale, and exchange of
  spatial data that describe the economic and
  social behavior of individuals, society will be
  challenged to maintain privacy

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Freedom of Information Act

• FOIA was authorized in 1966 to grant taxpayers
  access to information related to the functioning
  of the government
• Certain types of information- security, law
  enforcement investigations, and other information
  judged to be sensitive- are exempt
• However, eligible information must be made
  available to taxpayers at a reasonable cost
• Recent events have added restrictions to the
  types of data made available

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Legal liability

• When a service or product is unsatisfactory to a
  customer, legal liability arises
• Two types of liability related to GIS
• Contractual and Tort
• Contractual liability may occur when a
  contractual agreement between two parties has
  been breached
• Private organization software not operating as
  advertised or a spatial database that does not
  meet a data accuracy standard
• Tort liability may occur when a person or
  organization becomes injured (physically,
  monetarily, or otherwise) as a result of another
  partys actions or products
• An accident at sea that results from an
  inaccurate map or GIS database that was designed
  for navigation

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Competency

• Private organizations that provide GIS products
  and services are responsible for adhering to, and
  demonstrating, a level of competency
• When others are injured as a result of
  incompetence, the organization may be liable
• This occur due to inaccurate or insufficient data
• Typically, however, courts have established
  competency by comparing services or products to
  those that would be expected of an organization
  acting reasonable
• Government organizations have typically been
  immune from litigation related to providing
  inaccurate data
• Sovereign immunity
• Exceptions are made for discretional services or
  products

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Limiting liability risk

• Include information or disclaimers with a product
  that describe its intended use, data accuracy,
  data reliability, and a warning that there may be
  errors in the data (Chapter 4)
• Have a clearly defined contract for products
  and/or services and have all parties sign
• Make sure that all adhere to it
• If changes are needed, and go beyond the scope of
  the contract, the client should be informed
  immediately and a new contract agreed to before
  any additional work (in addition to the original
  contract) is performed

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GIS Interoperability

• Interoperability means that software packages get
  along with one another
• Accomplished through the option of standard
  terminology, data formats, and software
  interfaces
• Rapid GIS growth during the 1990s led to numerous
  incompatible GIS products

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Open Geospatial Consortium

• Over 340 member organizations, began in 1994
• Promotes accessibility to geoprocessing tools and
  location-based services
• Accomplishments
• Standardized terms points, lines, and polygons
• Created GML (Geography Markup Language), an open
  source language for describing spatial data
• Standards for how geographic data can be
  requested and accessed from Internet servers

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GIS Education

• GIS capabilities are now essential for natural
  resource organizations
• No direct accreditation process or organization
  exists to guide geospatial technology instruction
• ABET provides accreditation for engineering and
  surveying curriculums
• A need exists to identify the concepts and
  knowledge necessary for geospatial technology
  programs in higher-education
• The Geographic Information Science and Technology
  Body of Knowledge (DiBiase et al. 2006) has
  attempted to define critical concepts and skills
  related to GIScience