CHURCH HISTORY FROM THE 16TH TO THE 20TH CENTURIES

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CHURCH HISTORY FROM THE 16TH TO THE 20TH CENTURIES

• BI 3322

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A House Divided

• Disruption and Decline (1305-1517)

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B. The Nationalist Movement

• 1. The Clash Between Church and Crown
• Middle Ages Nations of Europe bound to two
  great universal powersempire and church.
• Emerging national consciousness consolidated
  respective lands in common traditions, language,
  centralized government naturally defensible
  borders.

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B. The Nationalist Movement

• 1. The Clash Between Church and Crown
• 3 most powerful monarchies evolved similarly,
  solidified by end of 15th c.
• England1485
• France1491
• Spain1492
• Kings took roles of emperors and sought to
  control the church in their territories.

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B. The Nationalist Movement

• 1. The Clash Between Church and Crown
• England
• 1351Statute of Provisorsdenied papacy right to
  fill English sees
• 1353Statute of Praemunireforbade appeals to
  courts of Rome
• 1366parliament declared king could not give
  kingdom to pope as a fief.

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B. The Nationalist Movement

• 1. The Clash Between Church and Crown
• France
• King Philip levied taxes on French clergy for ½
  annual income
• 1296 Pope Boniface VIII replied with Clericis
  Laicosforbade clergy to pay taxes to secular
  powers

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B. The Nationalist Movement

• 1. The Clash Between Church and Crown
• Boniface 1302Unam Sanctam, most extravagant
  claim to temporal sovereignty of Middle Ages
• Christ (king priest) gave two keys two swords
  to Peter
• We therefore declare, say, and affirm that
  submission on the part of every person to the
  bishop of Rome is altogether necessary for
  salvation.

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B. The Nationalist Movement

• 1. The Clash Between Church and Crown
• Philipsummoned an assembly which condemned
  Boniface and called for a general council to try
  him for heresy and immorality.
• Boniface--prepared bull of excommunication.
• Philip had Boniface captured and tortured.
• Boniface freed, but died month later

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B. The Nationalist Movement

• 2. The Babylonian Captivity
• Benedict XI (Bonifaces successor) died soon
  under mysterious circumstances
• Clement V chosen 11 months laterelected by
  cardinals at Rome, but crowned at Lyon and never
  returned to Italy.
• 1309 seat of papacy moved to Avignon
• Avignon the city of papacy for almost 70 years,
  hence, Babylonian Captivity

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B. The Nationalist Movement

• 2. The Babylonian Captivity
• Clement V led papacy in becoming a French
  institution
• All 7 Avignon popes were French
• Clement assisted Philip in using the Inquisition
  as a tool of the state tried the Knights
  Templars in France for heresy executed 69 of
  them.

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B. The Nationalist Movement

• 2. The Babylonian Captivity
• Church continued to decline morally and general
  unrest abounded.
• Many clergy practiced pluralism (holding two
  paying offices at once) and absenteeism (not
  living in the post from which income came).
• Urban V went to Rome 1367 returned in less than
  3 years.
• Gregory XI moved back in 1377.

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B. The Nationalist Movement

• 3. The Papal Schism
• Began soon after death of Gregory XI 1378
• French cardinals elected Urban VI under pressure,
  soon became unhappy with choice, and returned to
  Avignon
• In Avignon they elected Clement VII, a prince
  related to the king of France
• Urban appointed a new group of cardinals

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B. The Nationalist Movement

• 3. The Papal Schism
• Nations forced to decide between
• AvignonSpain, France, Scotland, part of Germany
• RomeItaly, most of Germany, Scandinavia,
  Bohemia, Poland, Flanders and Portugal

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B. The Nationalist Movement

• 3. The Papal Schism
• When Urban VI died, another Roman chosen
• Clement VII continued in Avignon 16 yrs.
• Clement succeeded by Benedict XIII, who served
  for 23 years

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B. The Nationalist Movement

• 3. The Papal Schism
• Many efforts to get both popes to resign and
  elect a new
• Both eventually agreed, but neither followed
  through
• 1409 cardinals from both Rome and Avignon met in
  a council at Pisadeposed both and elected a new

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B. The Nationalist Movement

• 3. The Papal Schism
• To Pisas surprise, neither pope would recognize
  their action
• Thus 3 popes ruled concurrently, each supported
  by the different states of Europe
• Intolerable situation created an uproar among
  intellectuals and grass roots populace

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C. The Conciliar Movement

• Nicaea 325 1st ecumenical
• Acts 15 the precedent?
• Council of Pisa the forerunner
• But was not summoned by a pope
• Widened schism rather than healing
• An authoritative council would need to be
  convened by both a pope and an emperor

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C. The Conciliar Movement

• 1. The Council of Constance
• John XXIII Emperor Sigismund managed a dual
  summons
• Constance 1414-1418RCC 16th official c.
• Purposes
• End papal schism
• Reform church
• Deal with various heresies

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C. The Conciliar Movement

• At outset c. called fro abdication of all 3 popes
• Without a pope Emperor Sigismund forced its
  continunace
• C. issued Articles of Constancedeclared a c.
  derived its authority directly from God and
  everyone, even the pope, had to obey its
  decisions.

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C. The Conciliar Movement

• Imp. of rise of nationalism clearly manifested at
  Constance.
• With problems at the beg., the c. changed the
  vote from personal vote to vote by nations.
• Deputies from 5 nations joined with the cardinals
  in electing Pope Martin V.

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C. The Conciliar Movement

• 2. The Council of Basel
• Declaring itself the supreme governing body,
  Constance had changed the papacy from an absolute
  to a constitutional monarchy.
• Didnt last long, but set a precedent for Vatican
  II

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C. The Conciliar Movement

• 2. The Council of Basel
• Constance called for a council in 5 yr, another
  in 7, and one every 10 forever after
• Martin V called a c. in 1423 at Pavia, but was
  terminated by plague
• 7 yr later called Council of Basel

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C. The Conciliar Movement

• 2. The Council of Basel
• New Pope Eugenius IV ordered the c. dissolved,
  but Emperor Sigismund ordered it to continue
• Eugenius was forced to flee Rome
• Papal prestige dealt a new blow by Nicholas of
  Cusa Lorenzo Vallademonstrated Donation of
  Constantine to be a forgery

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C. The Conciliar Movement

• 2. The Council of Basel
• Nicholas of Cusa gave strong support for
  conciliar authority over papal authority
• Pope just one member of the church
• Church (not pope) infallible and can transfer
  that infallibility to a general c.
• C. superior to a pope and could despose him

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C. The Conciliar Movement

• 2. The Council of Basel
• Armed with antipapal support Basel made sweeping
  declarations
• Abolishing man papal sources of revenue
• Filling high posts by election, not papal
• Regulating age number of cardinals
• Claiming right to grant indulgences.
• Basel had gone too far many supporters began to
  swing back

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C. The Conciliar Movement

• 2. The Council of Basel
• C. deposed Eugenius as a heretic and elected
  Felix V in his place Eugenius refused to step
  down.
• 1448 c. driven from Basel to Lausanne where Felix
  abdicated.
• Shortly after Eugenius died and was followed by
  Nicholas V.
• C. recognized Nicholas conciliar movement
  effectively ended.

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D. The Critical-Reform Movement

• Other purposes of the councils-
• Attempt reform within church
• Weak and ineffective
• Deal with heresy and dissent
• Severe and definitive
• Church was being further divided by deep
  theological and moral issues.
• Forerunners of Protestant Reformation desperately
  trying to save it.

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D. The Critical-Reform Movement

• 1. John Wycliffe (1328-84)
• The Morning Star of the Reformation
• Friend of John of Gaunt
• Supported British crown in dispute with pope over
  ownership and stewardship of property.
• 1375On Divine Lordship
• 1376On Civil Lorship

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D. The Critical-Reform Movement

• Righteous Stewardship
• Everything belongs to God
• Every creature is His servant
• No man has permanent or unlimited lordship
• Lordship is by the grace of God
• If any person, esp. a priest, is immoral or
  unfit, should be replaced
• Kings princes servants too, replaced if unfit

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D. The Critical-Reform Movement

• During scandal of papal schism, W. argued the
  true Church invisible
• Salvation does not depend on membership in
  visible church or mediation by priestupon
  election by God
• Everyone truly elected of God a priest
• But, true and pure priests should be honored
• Condemned cult of saints, relics, pilgrimages

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D. The Critical-Reform Movement

• Transubstantiation
• Rejected in favor of remanence (Christ is in the
  sacrament, along with bread wine, just as king
  is everywhere present in his kingdom)
• In this, though he appealed to Ambrose,
  Augustine, Anselm, Nicholas II, cause many of his
  friends to reject him.

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D. The Critical-Reform Movement

• Repudiated indulgences masses for the dead
  believed in purgatory
• Bible should be available for all men to read
  translated from Vulgate to English vernacular
• To distribute Bibles and preach, sent out
  traveling preachers (Lollardsmumblers)
• Peasants Revolt 1381 blamed on Lollards

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D. The Critical-Reform Movement

• 1. John Wycliffe (1328-84)
• Though some of Ws teachings created a stir and
  some condemned, he remained a devout Catholic and
  died in peace, 1384.
• 1401 strong act against heretics, aimed at
  Lollards.
• 1406 clear anti-Lollard measure.
• 1407 Archbishop of Canterbury condemned them.

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D. The Critical-Reform Movement

• 1. John Wycliffe (1328-84)
• 1409 synod in London condemned doctrines of W.
• Unauthorized translation of Bible
• Unlicensed preachers
• Some L. burned at stake
• Henry V tried to exterminate Lollards

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D. The Critical-Reform Movement

• 1. John Wycliffe (1328-84)
• Council of Constance
• Condemned W. on 260 counts
• Ordered writings burned
• Bones exhumed cast out of consecrated ground
• Papal command, bones dug up, burned and ashes
  thrown into nearby stream, 1428.
• Lollardy continued

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D. The Critical-Reform Movement

• 2. John Hus (1369-1415)
• While Lollards being suppressed in Eng., a
  reformer directly influenced by life and writings
  of W. was emerging in Bohemia.
• By 1409 H. rector of the U. of Prague
• Popular preacher at Bethlehem Chapel
• H. translated many of Ws writings into Czech
• This, and persistent sermons on morals of clergy
  provoked hostility.

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D. The Critical-Reform Movement

• 2. John Hus (1369-1415)
• Advocated
• NT as law of the church
• Christlike poverty as Christian ideal
• Reform of abuses like pilgrimages
• Christ as head of church, not the pope
• A predestined church of the elect
• Didnt agree with W. on remanence did champion
  Czech demand that laity have the cupchalice
  became sybol of Hussite movement

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D. The Critical-Reform Movement

• 2. John Hus (1369-1415)
• 1407 H. refused to be quiet, excommunicated by
  Archbishop of Prague
• 1409 C. of Pisa elected 3rd pope H. supported
  Pisan pope, but he also ordered H. to cease
  preaching
• H. appealed to the successor, John XXIII, but
  John excommunicated H. and placed Prague under
  the interdict

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D. The Critical-Reform Movement

• 2. John Hus (1369-1415)
• Emperor Sigismund sought remedy by having H.
  present case to C. of Constance
• H. went under imperial safe conduct, but was
  arrested, imprisoned, convicted as a manifest
  heretic and sentenced to burn.
• Burned at stake July 6, 1415.
• When news reached Prague country erupted in
  revolt.

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D. The Critical-Reform Movement

• 2. John Hus (1369-1415)
• Czech Moravian nobles pledged to defend reforms
  for which H. died
• Common people attacked monasteries and churches
• By Feb. 1416 all Prague chs in hands of reform
  clergy
• Revolt abetted the rising nationalism challenging
  the papacy

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D. The Critical-Reform Movement

• 2. John Hus (1369-1415)
• Four Prague Articles
• Freedom of preaching
• Sacrament in both kinds to all Christians
• Exemplary living and no secular power for priests
• Punishment of all mortal sins

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D. The Critical-Reform Movement

• 3. Mysticism
• Less drastic and thoroughly nonpolitical, but
  still created problems for church unity
• Mystics did not directly challenge papacy and
  priesthood did weaken ecclesiastical power by
  advocating direct contact with God
• If man can have direct unification and
  identification with God, then clergy, sacraments,
  etc., even prayer, unnecessary

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D. The Critical-Reform Movement

• 3. Mysticism
• Meister Eckhart (1260-1327)most dynamic force in
  religious life of Germany before Reformation
• Held
• Only reality in man nature is the divine spark
  of God, which is in everything
• Often accused of Pantheism

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D. The Critical-Reform Movement

• 3. Mysticism
• Insisted he was striving for individuals
  immersion and identification with God
• Feet and hands, and mouth and eyes, the heart,
  and all a man is and has, become Gods own.
• 1326 Eckhart accused but died before the
  proceedings
• Believed to have influenced Luther on faith,
  Kants critical idealism, Hegels pantheism.

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D. The Critical-Reform Movement

• 3. Mysticism
• Eckhart disciples Johann Tauler and Henry Suso.
• Tauler noted for preaching skill and devoted care
  of sick during Black Death of 1348.
• Stressed union with God, but not for its own
  sake, but to produce benevolent and charitable
  service
• The Mystic Wayvirtues of humility and
  abandonment to will of God

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D. The Critical-Reform Movement

• 3. Mysticism
• Henry Suso
• Extolled suffering as the way to the exquisite
  love of God
• John Ruysbroeck, Flemish priest popularized
  mystic contemplation
• Gerhard Groot founded Brethren of the Common
  Lifesemimonastic groups which emphasized
  poverty, chastity, obedience

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D. The Critical-Reform Movement

• 3. Mysticism
• Brethrendid not beg like mendicant friars and
  were free to quit and return to secular life
• Groot also helped develop Devotio Moderna (the
  modern way of serving God)this was a spiritual
  revival in Catholic church
• Many Brethren left markNicholas of Cusa, Erasmus

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D. The Critical-Reform Movement

• 3. Mysticism
• Man who best sums up faith of Devotio Moderna is
  Thomas a Kempis, author of Imitation of Christ
  (trans. into more languages than any book but
  Bible)
• Imitation of Christto teach the way of
  perfection through following Christs example.
• Is only toward the end that it even mentions the
  sacrament-based Catholicism from which it came.

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E. The Renaissance Movement

• Ca. 1300-1600
• Renaissancerebirth revival
• Revival of values of classical Greek and Roman
  civilization in arts, literature, and politics
• Imp. Motifsindividualism, secularism, rationalism

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E. The Renaissance Movement

• 1. Humanism in Literature
• R. began with revival of classical learning by
  scholars known as humanists.
• Originally, someone who taught Latin grammar
  then, someone who studied classical writings and
  molded life on what he read.
• Most (early) were Christian called for reform
  of education and morality.

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E. The Renaissance Movement

• 1. Humanism in Literature
• a. Dante Alighieri (1265-1321)
• Spanned transition from theological to secular
• Divine Comedyimaginary, allegorical trip through
  hell, purgatory, and paradise
• b. Francesco Petrarch (1304-74)
• c. Lorenzo Valla (1406-57)
• Believed all literature was subject to scholarly
  investigation, including Jeromes Vulgate.
• Father of historical criticism.

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E. The Renaissance Movement

• 1. Humanism in Literature
• d. Nicholas of Cusa (1400-64)
• Worked within church to reform
• Along with Lorenzo Valla demonstrated the falsity
  of the Donation of Constantine
• e. Johann Reuchlin (1455-1522)
• In time of anti-Jewish feelings promoted the
  study of Hebrew
• The great uncle of Philip Melanchthon

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E. The Renaissance Movement

• 1. Humanism in Literature
• f. Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536)
• Prince of humanists
• Educated by Brethren of the Common Life
• Never broke with the church but spoke against
  monasticism, Scholasticism and formalism.
• Wanted to purge the church of superstition
  through intelligence and ethical teachings of
  Christ.
• Endeavored to fuse culture with piety.

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E. The Renaissance Movement

• 1. Humanism in Literature
• f. Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536)
• 1503 Handbook of the Christian Soldierguide to
  Christian living
• 1509 In Praise of Follyrevealed hypocrisy,
  greed, ignorance in popes, cardinals, kings,
  nobles
• 1516 Greek New Testament

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E. The Renaissance Movement

• 1. Humanism in Literature
• f. Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536)
• 1516 On the Education of a Christian
  Princelauded biblical and classical education
  for rulers
• Familiar Colloquiesridiculed the corruptions of
  church and monastery and helped prepare for
  Reformation

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E. The Renaissance Movement

• 1. Humanism in Literature
• f. Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536)
• At times approved of Luthers work
• Clashed sharply over free will
• Believed reform from within possible and his
  method would work if alllowed to
• While I was fighting a fairly equal battle, lo!
  suddenly Luther arose and threw the apple of
  discord into the world.

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E. The Renaissance Movement

• 2. Realism in Culture
• Renaissance generally understood to be that
  period of time when the church began to lose
  control over society. Earth came to be more
  valued than heaven, fame was more important than
  immortality of the soul, self-cultivation more to
  be sought than self-denial, the delights of the
  flesh attracted more attention than asceticism,
  and intellectual freedom was more sacred than
  orthodox authority.

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E. The Renaissance Movement

• 2. Realism in Culture
• a. Renaissance Art.
• Realism appealed to and promoted the human urge
  to fulfillment and expression. Great artists of
  the period reflected that urge.
• Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael.
• Renaissance art threatened medieval
  authoritarianism and cultural solidarity.

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E. The Renaissance Movement

• 2. Realism in Culture
• b. Renaissance Architecture.
• Gothic style of pointed arch and soaring vault
  had expressed medieval mans aspiration of
  turning from the laborious soil to the exalted
  sky.
• In R. men sought to beautify life, not to escape
  it, and earth was to be embellished as though it
  were heaven.

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E. The Renaissance Movement

• 2. Realism in Culture
• b. Renaissance Architecture.
• Gothic church was cruciform the R. church was
  circular.
• Gothic church used the spire the R. featured the
  dome.
• Basilica of St. Peter, cornerstone laid 1506.

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E. The Renaissance Movement

• 2. Realism in Culture
• b. Renaissance Architecture.
• Gothic church was cruciform the R. church was
  circular.
• Gothic church used the spire the R. featured the
  dome.
• Basilica of St. Peter, cornerstone laid 1506.

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E. The Renaissance Movement

• 3. Monopolism in Religion
• Medieval Xtianity had become a kingdom in this
  world many pagan worldly elements influenced
  the church.
• When R. opened new doors, the ch. retreated into
  an already divided house.
• Some R. popes were great patrons of the arts, but
  often benefits of the R. were used to buttress
  the antiquated systems of the church.

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E. The Renaissance Movement

• 3. Monopolism in Religion
• a. Pope Nicholas V (1397-1455)
• Maybe the best of R. popes
• Laid plans for rebuilding Vatican and St. Peters
  and founded the Vatican library.
• Lived a blameless personal life, avoided
  nepotism, and was eager to reconcile religion
  with the new R. spirit.

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E. The Renaissance Movement

• 3. Monopolism in Religion
• b. Pope Sixtus IV (1471-84)
• A new low for the papacy devoted to politics and
  self-interest
• Elevated 6 nephews to Cardinals (one Pope Julius
  II)
• Was implicated in the murder of two de Medicis
• But, founded Sistine Choir, built Sistine Chapel,
  enriched Vatican library.
• Personally moral.

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E. The Renaissance Movement

• 3. Monopolism in Religion
• c. Pope Innocent VIII (1484-92)
• A weak worldling with several children that he
  openly sought to advance.
• Elaborate building program at a time when were
  calls for reform.
• Superficial theologically1484 bull declared
  Germany to be full of witches.

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E. The Renaissance Movement

• 3. Monopolism in Religion
• d. Pope Alexcander VI (1492-1503)
• Most notoriously immoral pope of all time
• Had many children supported by church revenues,
  e.g., Lucrezia Borgia and Cesare Borgia.
• Skillful administrator who advanced education,
  patronized the arts, beautified Rome, and showed
  kindness to the Jews.

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E. The Renaissance Movement

• 3. Monopolism in Religion
• d. Pope Alexcander VI (1492-1503)
• Prosecuted Girolamo Savonarola, who denounced the
  immorality of Florence and the clergy.
• Alexander excommunicated him S. demanded a
  general council to depose A.
• S. was finally imprisoned and then hanged in
  marketplace of Florence, 1498.

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E. The Renaissance Movement

• 3. Monopolism in Religion
• e. Pope Julius II (1503-13)
• Most warlike pope Erasmus more shocked by the
  vulgarity of a pope in armor than by the
  carnality of the Borgia.
• Restored and enlarged temporal power of papacy.
• Essentially a statesman and military leader, but
  made possible Ms Moses, Ms paintings in Sistine
  C. Raphaels paintings in Vatican.
• Sale of indulgences sparked the P. Reformation.

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E. The Renaissance Movement

• 3. Monopolism in Religion
• f. Pope Leo X (1513-21)
• Wealthy, pleasure-loving member of de Medici
• Now we have the papacy let us enjoy it.
• Spent more on gambling than artists.
• Within 2 years squandered the fortune left by
  Julius II.
• Never understood Martin Luther, whom he
  excommunicated in 1520.

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Cleansing The Temple

• The Reform Crisis
• (1517-1648)

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A. Prelude To Reform

• 1. Political Conditions
• Struggle between crown papacy increased as
  rising national states demanded more control of
  ch. Government
• Kings involved not concerned with reforming the
  church, only controlling it.
• Their efforts curbed the power of the pope and
  weakened his ability to crush the Reformation.

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A. Prelude To Reform

• 1. Political Conditions
• England
• Since 1066 Eng. King had been head of Eng. Ch.
• 1265 House of Commons formed, giving king
  additional support of middle class
• On eve of Reformation, Eng. recognized pope as
  head of the Ch. of Eng. only insofar as the laws
  of the land permitted.

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A. Prelude To Reform

• 1. Political Conditions
• France
• 100 Years War (1338-1453) consolidated royal
  power
• 1516 Francis I and Pope Leo X drew up Concordat
  of Bologna, which made the king the virtual head
  of the church in France.

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A. Prelude To Reform

• 1. Political Conditions
• Spain
• 1469, monarchy born with marriage of Ferdinand of
  Aragon and Isabella of Castile, who sought to
  reform of ch. and to bring it in submission to
  crown.
• 1482 they forced Sixtus IV to sign concordat
  placing nominations to higher ch. posts under
  royal control.

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A. Prelude To Reform

• 1. Political Conditions
• Germany
• Ca. 300 states organized under Articles of
  Confederation
• Since Otto the Great (962), head of Germanic
  states also emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, but
  consolidation provided opportunity for national
  church under state control.

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A. Prelude To Reform

• 2. Ximenes in Spain
• Archbishop of Toledo and personal confessor to
  Queen Isabella
• As head of ch., had burning desire to purge ch.
  of unworthy and undisciplined clergy and monks.
• Unleashed remarkable revival of piety and
  learning, setting example himself in an austere
  life-style of discipline and devotion.

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A. Prelude To Reform

• 2. Ximenes in Spain
• Eliminated many monastic abuses, stopped clerical
  irregularities, and fought heresy with great
  passion.
• Promoted biblical and medical studies and founded
  U. of Alcala.
• Published Complutensian Polyglot (Hebrew, Latin
  and Greek)

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A. Prelude To Reform

• 2. Ximenes in Spain
• Pub. 1st NT in Greek 1514
• Increasingly directed energies to stamping out
  heresy launched crusades of preaching and
  violence against infidels and deviators from the
  faith.
• 1507 head of Spanish Inquisitionexecuted 2,500
  imprisoned and tortured more than 40,000 burned
  in effigy 1,300.
• Set pace for inner reform later.

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A. Prelude To Reform

• 3.Indulgence Controversy
• Central Europe seething for revolt
• Causes political, social, economic, as well as
  religious
• Practical issue which brought these issues
  together and into clear focus was the profligate
  sale of indulgences by church officials.

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A. Prelude To Reform

• 3.Indulgence Controversy
• Indulgencethe means by which the ch. alleviated
  an individuals temporal penalties in purgatory
  because of special merit earned or exceptional
  contributions made.
• 11th 12th cent., popes promised soldiers
  indulgences for fighting against Moslems in the
  crusades.
• Then, was extended to those who could not go, but
  financially sponsored someone who could.

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A. Prelude To Reform

• 3. Indulgence Controversy
• Practice broadened to include many specified good
  works.
• To under gird practice, there developed the
  theological principle of the treasury of the
  church, supported by Thomas Aquinas, Albertus
  Magnus, Alexander of Hales.
• Treasuryapostles saints had done far more
  than necessary, so a surplus of merit.

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A. Prelude To Reform

• 3. Indulgence Controversy
• Surplus, added to the great work accomplished by
  Christ, gave church a rich treasury of merit
  which could be transferred to penitent sinners in
  satisfaction for their offenses.
• 1343 Clement VI gave official papal endorsement.
• Trade increased dramatically developed into a
  business to raise money for papacy.

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A. Prelude To Reform

• 3. Indulgence Controversy
• 1476 Sixtus IV permitted living to buy
  indulgences for those already dead and in
  purgatory.
• 1517 Johann Tetzel was literally hawking
  indulgences through much of Germany by clever
  promotional methods, promising as soon as the
  money fell into the coffer, a soul was released
  from purgatory.

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A. Prelude To Reform

• 3. Indulgence Controversy
• Only ½ went to the pope other went to pay off an
  ecclesiastical debt.
• Albert of Brandenburg, a prince-bishop, coveted
  the archbishopric of Mainz, but he already held
  two bishoprics it was against canon law to hold
  more than one and he was too young to have any.
• To circumvent canon law required large bribes and
  fees.

85
A. Prelude To Reform

• 3. Indulgence Controversy
• Albert borrowed the needed money from the Fugger
  bankers, using as security the promise of an
  indulgence campaign in his territory, ½ going to
  the Fuggers and ½ to the pope.
• Luther at first ignorant of the arrangement his
  attack on indulgences had been made on
  theological grounds.

86
A. Prelude To Reform

• 3. Indulgence Controversy
• 1516 L. in several sermons openly questioned the
  effectiveness and ethics of indulgences,
  declaring that pope had no power to release souls
  from purgatory.
• L. later pointed out that while others had merely
  attacked papal morals, he had gone to theological
  roots of problemperversion of grace,
  externalizing sacrament of penance, legalism
  contrary to gospel of Christ.

87
A. Prelude To Reform

• 3. Indulgence Controversy
• I. Controversy provided the tangible expression
  of the intangible issues.
• When L. posted his Ninety-Five Theses calling for
  a theological discussion on the efficacy of
  indulgences, he literally threw open the gate
  which had been straining for centuries against
  ecclesiastical abuses and theological heresies.

88
B. Reform in Germany

• People of Germany had begun to resent papal
  efforts to drain the wealth of Germanys
  developing mines.
• Christian humanists in Germany also helped to
  stir the fires of reform.
• Germans spiritual nature strong nationalism
  prepared them to readily accept Luther as their
  champion and spokesman.

89
B. Reform in Germany

• 1. Martin Luther (1483-1546)
• Born Eisleben 11/10/1483, oldest of 7
• Father a miner who eventually gained considerable
  wealth, but peasant traits of spirituality and
  superstition remained in family.
• L. attended school of Brethren of the Common Life
  in Magdeburg

90
B. Reform in Germany

• 1. Martin Luther (1483-1546)
• Later school in Eisenach in preparation in Latin
  for university
• 1502 U. of Erfurt, bachelors degree
• Planned to study law plans abruptly changed by
  religious crisis
• July 2, 1505 L. almost struck by lightening
  vowed to St. Anne if spared from death would
  become a monk.

91
B. Reform in Germany

• 1. Martin Luther (1483-1546)
• Father called it a trick of the devil, but L.
  entered Augustinian monastery at Erfurt.
• Always in background for the Medieval Catholic
  hovered specter of purgatory and wrath of God,
  with escape from such wrath best found in the
  monasteries.

92
B. Reform in Germany

• 1. Martin Luther (1483-1546)
• Monastery life and training did not bring the
  peace he sought.
• 1st Mass, May 1507overwhelmed with his
  unworthiness and fear of God.
• Sought relief through good works and self-denial.
• Engaged in excessive confession of every type of
  sin.

93
B. Reform in Germany

• 1. Martin Luther (1483-1546)
• Monastery life and training did not bring the
  peace he sought.
• On visit to Rome 1510-11 hoped to find
  forgiveness and release from despair.
• Deeply shocked and disappointed by superficial
  and worldly leaders in Rome.
• Said he had carried onions to Rome and brought
  back garlic.

94
B. Reform in Germany

• 1. Martin Luther (1483-1546)
• Monastery life and training did not bring the
  peace he sought.
• Began preparing for appointment as professor of
  theology at new U. of Wittenberg.
• Received doctorate 10/19/1512 and became
  professorheld position until his death.

95
B. Reform in Germany

• 1. Martin Luther (1483-1546)
• Began to lecture on various books of the Bible.
• 1513-16 lectured on Psalms, Romans, Galatians,
  Hebrews, studying from original languages.
• From study developed concept of sola
  scripturathe scriptures the only authority for
  sinful man in seeking salvation.

96
B. Reform in Germany

• 1. Martin Luther (1483-1546)
• Sola scriptura formed one of the two main themes
  of his systemthe other was sola fide,
  justification by faith alone
• Arrived at latter theme through tower
  experience, studying the book of Romans in tower
  room of Augustinian friary at Wittenberg.
• Rom. 117 The just shall live by faith

97
B. Reform in Germany

• 1. Martin Luther (1483-1546)
• Words seemed to literally leap out at him the
  watchword of Protestant Reformation was born.
• Thereupon I felt as if I had been born again and
  had entered Paradise through wide-open gates.
  Immediately the whole of Scripture took on a new
  meaning for me. I raced through the Scriptures,
  so far as my memory went, and found analogies in
  other expressions.

98
B. Reform in Germany

• 1. Martin Luther (1483-1546)
• L. had discovered a merciful God.
• He encountered the forgiveness of a God of grace.
• Man justified before God by accepting Gods
  forgiveness in faith, not by achieving acceptance
  through good works.
• Difference between receiving and achieving.

99
B. Reform in Germany

• 1. Martin Luther (1483-1546)
• Man does good works not to earn way to heaven but
  to express joy and gratitude for what God has
  already done.
• His twin themes sola scriptura and sola fide led
  to clear and distinctive affirmations which
  rocked the Catholic world.

100
B. Reform in Germany

• 1. Martin Luther (1483-1546)
• Affirmations
• 1) Salvation is by faith alone, not by works.
• 2) God is accessible to every Christian without
  the mediation of priest or church, hence
  priesthood of all believers.
• 3) Bible only standard for faith and life.
• 4) Bible must be interpreted by the aid of the
  Holy Spirit. (Individual man with his Biblethe
  Protestant Christian)

101
B. Reform in Germany

• 1. Martin Luther (1483-1546)
• L. undercut the dominant claims and practices of
  RCC for previous 1000 yrs.
• L. still a pious Catholic did not feel he was
  in opposition to the true doctrine he attacked
  only the evils and abuses.
• One who helped L. in arriving at the certainty of
  his salvation was his mentor and predecessor,
  Johann von Staupitz.

102
B. Reform in Germany

• 1. Martin Luther (1483-1546)
• S. had encouraged L. as early as 1505 his
  insights into the gospel means love laughter as
  well as learning.
• S. was faithful to medieval theology and the
  mystical piety of the middle ages.
• Was little wonder that L. thought he was still in
  the mainstream of Catholicism.

103
B. Reform in Germany

• 1. Martin Luther (1483-1546)
• At outset appeared that Ls reforms would be
  confined to theological curriculum.
• But L. was a parish priest too when current
  abuses threatened to imperil the souls of his
  parishioners, he was compelled to speak out.
• When the indulgence controversy reached
  Wittenberg

104
B. Reform in Germany

• 2. The Ninety-Five Theses
• October 31, 1517birth date of Protestant
  Reformation
• L. posted Ninety-Five Theses on door of
  Wittenberg Castle Church in protest of flagrant
  hawking of indulgences by Johann Tetzel.
• T. offered full pardon for all sins, even for
  dead in purgatory, even if had violated the
  Virgin Mary.

105
B. Reform in Germany

• 2. The Ninety-Five Theses
• Castle Church (the university chapel) housed
  almost 18,000 relics collected by Elector
  Frederick of Saxony.
• Offerings from those who viewed the relics were
  used as revenue for the university.
• Bones from saints, twig from Ms burning bush, a
  tear shed by Jesus..

106
B. Reform in Germany

• 2. The Ninety-Five Theses
• Payment to see the relics also served as
  indulgences was possible to purchase as much as
  2,000,000 years of release from purgatory.
• As early as 1516 L. had spoken out was
  professionally courageous since his salary
  depended in part on this.

107
B. Reform in Germany

• 2. The Ninety-Five Theses
• Frederick forbade Tetzel to enter Saxony for fear
  T. would detract from his own income.
• When the people poured across the nearby border
  to buy from T., L. decided was time to debate the
  issue openly.

108
B. Reform in Germany

• 2. The Ninety-Five Theses
• Door of Castle Church served as a sort of
  university bulletin board.
• Normal procedure in academic circles for calling
  for debate or discussion on controversial issues.
• L. accordingly expected to have a normal academic
  and theological debate on the issue.

109
B. Reform in Germany

• 2. The Ninety-Five Theses
• 95 Theses invited debate on 3 general subjects
• 1) The traffic in indulgences (L. said
  unscriptural, ineffective, dangerous).
• 2) The power of the pope in forgiveness of sins
  (L. rejected).
• 3) The treasury of the church (L. said was the
  gospel, not merits of Christ and saints).

110
B. Reform in Germany

• 2. The Ninety-Five Theses
• (5) The pope has neither the will nor the power
  to remit any penalties
• (6) The pope has no power to remit any guilt,
  except declaring and warranting it to have been
  remitted by God.
• (27) They preach man, who say that the soul flies
  out of purgatory as soon as the money thrown into
  the chest rattles.

111
B. Reform in Germany

• 2. The Ninety-Five Theses
• (28) It is certain that, when the money rattles
  in the chest, avarice and gain may be increased,
  but the suffrage of the church depends on the
  will of God alone.
• (86) Why does snot the pope, whose riches are at
  this day more ample than those of the wealthiest
  of the wealthy, build the one Basilica of St.
  Peter with his own money, .

112
B. Reform in Germany

• 2. The Ninety-Five Theses
• L. had struck at the very nerves of the Catholic
  system.
• He had called the whole indulgence business a
  fraud and that was the churchs best means of
  acquiring funds.
• Had declared gospel itself supersedes the claims
  of the pope.
• Had impugned integrity and authority of pope.

113
B. Reform in Germany

• 2. The Ninety-Five Theses
• Theses translated from Latin into vernacular
  German circulated widely.
• L. a national hero overnight opened the
  floodgates of pent-up resentments.
• Tetzel Dominicans did accept challenge to
  debate and countered with own set of theses
  upholding hard-line Catholicism.

114
B. Reform in Germany

• 2. The Ninety-Five Theses
• L. didnt bother to debate, but sent copy of his
  theses to Archbishop Albert of Mainz, who sent it
  to the pope.
• Leo X took only casual notice did order the
  Augustinians to quiet noisy L.
• At a chapter meeting of Augustinians in April,
  1518, L. received substantial support from his
  peers.

115
B. Reform in Germany

• 3. The Gathering Storm
• July 1518 the Papal Inquisitor persuaded pope to
  summon L. to Rome Frederick able to have
  summons changed to a consultation at Augsburg
  with Cardinal Cajetan, Oct. 1518.
• L. soon discovered C. wanted an immediate
  retraction submission, not a discussion.

116
B. Reform in Germany

• 3. The Gathering Storm
• L. replied that he could not submit without being
  shown error by scripture or reason.
• To both Prierias (Inquisitor) and Cajetan L.
  stressed authority of scripture, shifting the
  controversy from indulgences to issue of
  authority.
• Fearing arrest, L. appealed to a general council.

117
B. Reform in Germany

• 3. The Gathering Storm
• HRE died in 1519 pope wanted a lesser figure
  (like Frederick) elected new HRE.
• Not politically wise for the pope to press
  actions against Fredericks most famous
  professor, L.
• Karl von Miltitz (papal rep.) sent to conciliate
  L. got L. to promise he would refrain from
  debate if his opponents would do likewise.

118
B. Reform in Germany

• 3. The Gathering Storm
• L. refrained until provoked by attacks from
  Johann Eck, U. of Ingolstadt.
• Es attacks provoked public demand for a formal
  debate between the two.
• Held in Leipzig, July, 1519Leipzig Disputation.
• Elaborate affair3 weeks.
• E. able to draw L. out to definitive positions.

119
B. Reform in Germany

• 3. The Gathering Storm
• Positions included
• 1)Ls support of ideas of John Hus.
• 2) Ls belief that general councils are fallible.
• 3) Ls affirmation that articles of faith must
  come from Scripture.
• E. jubilant had forced Ls hand.
• Was indeed an open revelation of what L. believed.

120
B. Reform in Germany

• 3. The Gathering Storm
• Positions included
• 1)Ls support of ideas of John Hus.
• 2) Ls belief that general councils are fallible.
• 3) Ls affirmation that articles of faith must
  come from Scripture.
• E. jubilant had forced Ls hand.
• Was indeed an open revelation of what L. believed.

121
B. Reform in Germany

• 3. The Gathering Storm
• L. had clearly denied authority of RCC, insisting
  ultimate authority rest in the Bible as
  interpreted by the individual.
• E. orthodox churchmen branded L. a heretic.
• Many humanists nearly all his colleagues at
  Wittenberg stood with him.

122
B. Reform in Germany

• 4. The Break With Rome
• 1520 a year of prolific writing for L. writings
  took form of essays known as tracts.
• MaySermon on Good Works
• JuneThe Papacy at Rome
• AugustThe Address to the German Nobility
• SeptemberThe Babylonian Captivity of the Church

123
B. Reform in Germany

• 4. The Break With Rome
• 1520 a year of prolific writing for L. writings
  took form of essays known as tracts.
• NovemberThe Freedom of the Christian Man
• All written in terse German vernacular read
  widely through Europe.

124
B. Reform in Germany

• 4. The Break With Rome
• Sermon on Good Works
• noblest of all good works is to believe in
  Christ.
• Good works to be done gladly and freely, not to
  attain salvation, but to please God.
• Good works also include the normal activities of
  daily life.

125
B. Reform in Germany

• 4. The Break With Rome
• The Address to the German Nobility
• Attacked 3 walls Roman church had built to
  protect itself.
• 1) superiority of popes, bishops, priests over
  laity.
• 2) papal claim to the exclusive right to
  interpret Scripture.
• 3) claim that only a pope could summon a council
  and confirm its acts.

126
B. Reform in Germany

• 4. The Break With Rome
• The Babylonian Captivity of the Church
• Sacramentsdrastically departed from Catholic
  doctrine.
• Papacy the kingdom of Babylon that had carried
  the church into captivity.
• E.g. of the captivitydenial of cup to the
  laityshould be in both kinds
• Anothertransubstantiation rejected, but did
  believe consubstantiation (real presence).

127
B. Reform in Germany

• 4. The Break With Rome
• The Babylonian Captivity of the Church
• L. also denied mass is a good work and a
  sacrifice.
• Expressed high regard for baptism.
• Except for penance, L. saw no scriptural grounds
  for the other sacraments saw value of
  confession, but it need not be to an ordained
  priest.

128
B. Reform in Germany

• 4. The Break With Rome
• The Babylonian Captivity of the Church
• No grounds for regarding confirmation as a
  sacrament.
• No scriptural basis for making matrimony a
  sacrament.
• Since all believers priests, ordination
  designates a leader, but has no sacramental value.

129
B. Reform in Germany

• 4. The Break With Rome
• The Freedom of the Christian Man
• A Christian man is the most free lord of all,
  and subject to none a Christian man is the most
  dutiful servant of all and subject to everyone.
• His definitive essay on justification by faith
  alone and the servanthood of the believer.

130
B. Reform in Germany

• 4. The Break With Rome
• The Freedom of the Christian Man
• Took care to explain that his doctrine of
  salvation by faith did not permit immorality, but
  promoted morality and good works.
• It is not from works that we are set free by the
  faith of Christ but from foolishly presuming to
  seek justification through works.

131
B. Reform in Germany

• 4. The Break With Rome
• The Freedom was addressed to the pope after the
  latter had already issued his primary bull
  against L.
• Many disparate groups were finding a common
  champion in the bold German.
• Biblical reformers saw him as a scholar who
  intended to fashion his reform around the Bible.

132
B. Reform in Germany

• Many disparate groups were finding a common
  champion in the bold German.
• Mystics who insisted man could approach God
  without priest or church heard L. speaking their
  language.
• Humanists looking for intellectual reform
  welcomed the open erudite L.
• Patriotic Germans who dreamed of reform to
  restore their land to the people took L. to heart.

133
B. Reform in Germany

• 1st step of separation taken by Leo XJune 15,
  1520, Exsurge Domine, which began, Arise, Lord,
  and judge thy cause. . . .A wild boar has invaded
  thy vineyard.
• Widespread opposition to the bull cause 3 months
  to elapse before was delivered to L. on Oct. 10,
  1520.
• Dec. 10, 1520 before assembled students
  faculty, L. burned the bull, along with works
  supporting the papacy.
• Excommunication January 3, 1521.

134
B. Reform in Germany

• 5. The Diet of Worms
• Ch. wanted L. publicly excommunicated and turned
  over to secular powers for burning at the stake.
• Newly elected HRE was Charles V of Spain,
  grandson of Ferdinand Isabella
• Shared his grandmothers desire for reforming the
  church, but also a loyal Catholic.

135
B. Reform in Germany

• 5. The Diet of Worms
• Charles probably would have proceeded with Ls
  execution had it not been for his own novice
  status and the sensitive political situation in
  Germany.
• He called imperial and ecclesiastical dignitaries
  to the Diet of Worms April 18, 1521 and called L.
  for a hearing.

136
B. Reform in Germany

• 5. The Diet of Worms
• Erasmus and his followers wanted to avoid schism
  and possible war that would erupt if L. were
  burned.
• They tried to get L. to compromise on the
  question of the sacraments could then negotiate
  on other points.
• But L. acknowledged his writings including the
  critical essay on sacraments.

137
B. Reform in Germany

• 5. The Diet of Worms
• Asked if he stood by the writings, L. asked for
  time and the next day strongly affirmed that he
  did.
• Unless I am convicted by the Scriptures and
  plain reasonI do not accept the authority of
  popes and councils, for they have contradicted
  each othermy conscience is captive to the Word
  of God. I cannot and I will

138
B. Reform in Germany

• 5. The Diet of Worms
• Not recant anything, for to go against conscience
  is neither right nor safe. Here I stand. I
  cannot do otherwise. God help me. Amen.
• L. then called before a committee which asked for
  compromise. L. replied that truth was not open
  to negotiation.

139
B. Reform in Germany

• 5. The Diet of Worms
• Still under the safe-conduct order L. left Worms.
• Kidnapped by supporters taken, by Fredericks
  order to Wartburg Castle.
• Remained there in disguise and under an assumed
  name for 11 months.

140
B. Reform in Germany

• 5. The Diet of Worms
• When Charles V realized L. would not negotiate,
  had to act did a month later.
• May, 1521, Edict of Worms declared L. to be a
  limb cut off from the Church of God, an obstinate
  schismatic and manifest heretic.
• All subjects of empire to refuse L. lodging,
  food, drink to take him prisoner and give him to
  the authorities.

141
B. Reform in Germany

• 5. The Diet of Worms
• Edict also prohibited the printing, buying, or
  selling of Ls works.
• Called for arrest of Ls friends and the
  confiscation of their property.
• Although never enforced, L. lived his life under
  the cloud of this edict.
• By mid. 1521 L. excommunicated and banned as an
  outlaw.

142
B. Reform in Germany

• 6. The Continuing Struggle
• Though safe at Wartburg, L. troubled with
  depression, insomnia other physical ailments.
• In 9 mo. wrote a dozen books and translated NT
  from Gk to German.
• His NT made the Bible a dominant influence in
  German life helped the formation of modern
  German language.

143
B. Reform in Germany

• 6. The Continuing Struggle
• While at Wartburg, 2 colleagues assumed
  leadership.
• Philipp Melanchthon, 25 yr old grand-nephew of
  humanist Reuchlin, put the fundamental concepts
  and Biblical doctrines into the Loci Communesthe
  first systematic theology of the movement.

144
B. Reform in Germany

• 6. The Continuing Struggle
• While at Wartburg, 2 colleagues assumed
  leadership.
• The 2nd, Andreas Carlstadt, an erratic and
  radical professor tried to turn Ls reform into a
  full-scale revolution.
• Advocated abolition of confession, priestly garb,
  clerical celibacy.
• Used German rather than Latin in the Mass, gave
  both bread wine to laity.

145
B. Reform in Germany

• 6. The Continuing Struggle
• C. also denounced the use of pictures and images.
• Under his influence, riots broke out against the
  Mass, resulting in a lot of destruction of church
  art and property.
• Appealing to priesthood of all believers C.
  dressed like a peasant and insisted on being
  called Brother Andreas rather than Doctor.

146
B. Reform in Germany

• 6. The Continuing Struggle
• C. also denounced use of music and musical
  instruments in church services.
• When L. returned to Wittenberg, he rejected Cs
  radicalism and C. left in disgrace.
• Town council of W., alarmed at radicalism,
  appealed to L. to return and resume leadership

147
B. Reform in Germany

• 6. The Continuing Struggle
• L. did so at grave risk and advocated moderation
  rather than extremism, urged love and freedom of
  choice on controversial issues.
• Ls firm control and forthright sermons soon
  suppressed the radicals such as the Zwickau
  prophets who espoused most of the views of the
  Anabaptists plus teaching the literal coming of
  kingdom of God on ea