Human Anatomy and Physiology Honors

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Human Anatomy and Physiology Honors

• Chapter 1
• Introduction

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Objectives

• Define, compare, and contrast various levels and
  forms of anatomical study
• List and describe technologies which aid in
  anatomical study
• Define physiology
• Define homeostasis
• Define feed-back mechanisms and how they help the
  body maintain homeostasis
• Define and describe various categories of disease
• Describe the bodys levels of organization
• List and give general descriptions of the major
  body systems
• List, define, and describe the body planes,
  directional terms, and body regions and
  anatomical terminology associated with each
• Identify the various body cavities and the organs
  associated with each

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What is anatomy?

• Anatomy is the study of the structures of an
  organism. Morphology is a term which relates to
  structure of an organism as well. The key word
  associated with anatomy is STRUCTURE.
• Gross anatomy is the study of structure at the
  macroscopic level or with out the use of a
  microscope. Microanatomy is the study of
  structure at the microscopic level and there are
  different forms.
• Histology study of body tissues structures and
  their functions.
• Cytology the study of cells and their structures
  and organelle functions.
• We will incorporate all levels of anatomical
  study in this course.

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Levels of Anatomical Structure
Microscopic Histological and Cytological Level
Macroscopic Gross Level
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Approaches of Anatomical Study

• There are two ways that anatomy can be studied
• a. Regional Approach This method focuses on a
  specific region of the body and all structures
  for that particular region from the most external
  to the most internal. (head, thorax, abdomen,
  appendages). This approach is often used in
  medical colleges when dissecting a cadaver in
  gross anatomy.
• b. Systemic Approach This method focuses on
  particular body systems as structural units not
  where each part is located (digestive system,
  respiratory system, nervous system,
  cardiovascular system). This is the approach we
  will use for this course.

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Technology Used for Anatomical and Physiological
Studies

• Microscopes Light microscopes, Electron
  microscopes (scanning and transmission) and
  various other forms of microscopy allow the study
  of structures to small to viewed by the unaided
  eye.
• X-rays Examine internal structures, however
  exposure to potentially damaging radiation is
  required.
• MRI and CAT SCAN Imaging Images are produced
  without the use of damaging radiation.
• Ultrasound Images are produced by sound waves
  bouncing off the object being viewed.
• Radioisotopes Radioisotopes are released in the
  body and are tracked using equipment to follow
  their path and determine how the organ in
  question is functioning.

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What is Physiology?

• Physiology relates to the function of a
  structure. Remember that in biological systems
  structure often determines the function. The
  role of a particular structure plays in keeping
  the organism alive is physiology. The key word
  associated with physiology is FUNCTION.
• Because structure and function are so closely
  related Anatomy and Physiology are often combined
  for a more complete understanding of the organism.

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Homeostasis

• Your body is a very complex living machine with
  billions of processes occurring every second at
  the macroscopic and microscopic level. When some
  internal or external change in the bodys
  environment occurs, the body must make
  adjustments to maintain operation at its peak or
  optimum performance. Homeostasis (same state of
  being) is the internal balance maintained by an
  organism no matter what changes occur in the
  environment (external or internal).
• The body will make changes within its system to
  maintain this optimum state. Most of the changes
  occur autonomically (without your conscious
  control) and you are often unaware that they are
  occurring!
• The body monitors and makes adjustments by using
  pathways know as Feed Back Mechanisms to maintain
  homeostasis.

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Homeostasis
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Feed Back Mechanisms

• Feed Back Mechanisms consist of three major
  components
• 1. Receptor Receives stimulus and monitor
  changes in the bodys internal and external
  environment and relays it to the integration
  center. (Usually a component of the peripheral
  nervous system or endocrine system, sometimes
  called a sensor).
• 2. Integration Center Interprets stimulus and
  coordinates the proper response to re-establish
  homeostatic state. (Usually central nervous
  system and endocrine system)
• 3. Effector Receives message from integration
  center and undergoes some change to re-establish
  homeostatic state of the body. ( Usually a
  specific body tissue, organ or body system
  component involved).

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Homeostasis and Feed Back Mechanisms
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Types of Feed Back Mechanisms

• There are two primary types of feed back
  mechanisms in living organisms. They are
• 1. Negative feedback (temperature regulation
  in humans, blood glucose level regulation), which
  causes effectors to reduce or reverse a process
  to re-establish homeostatic state.
• 2. Positive feedback ( contractions of the
  uterus during child birth, milk let-down reflex,
  blood clotting) which tells a regulatory system
  or effectors to amplify a response to
  re-establish homeostatic state.
• The most common type of feed back mechanism is
  the negative type.

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Disease

• Any changes in the body structurally or
  functionally, which interferes with the bodys
  ability to maintain homeostasis is a DISEASE.
• There are four major categories of disease.
• 1. Congenital
• 2. Immunological
• 3. Metabolic
• 4. Neoplastic

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Congenital Disease

• Congenital diseases are diseases that exist prior
  to or at birth. They can be due to genetic
  disorders (Hemophilia), chromosomal disorders
  (Downs syndrome), or the failure of the fetus to
  develop properly (Spina bifida, cleft palate).

The individuals above suffer from a genetic
disorder known as Xeroderma pigmentosum. This
disease affects the skin and renders the
individuals without any protection from UV light.
Their skin literally burns when exposed to
any light source that emits UV radiation,
even from light bulbs.
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Immunological Disease

• Immunological diseases are caused by foreign
  organisms (pathogens) or agents (allergens,
  poisons) that enter the body and cause disease.
  Typically the invoke a response by the bodys
  immune system. Chicken pox, measles, mumps,
  strept-throat, AIDS, and allergies are all
  examples of this type of disease. In some cases
  the bodys own immune system turns on itself and
  begins to attack its own tissues. These type of
  diseases are called autoimmune diseases . Lupus
  is an example of such a disease.

The individual above is suffering from the viral
disease small pox. Small pox scars, blinds,
maims, and often kills those it infects. It has
been eradicated from the human population by
vaccination. However, scientists are worried
that it may re-emerge due to globalization, war,
and terrorism.
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Metabolic Disease

• Metabolic diseases are those that interfere or
  inhibit normal metabolic processes of the body.
  Graves disease (hyperthyroidism), diabetes, PKU,
  and Cushings disease are all examples of
  metabolic diseases. Injuries are also classified
  as metabolic disease because they also interfere
  with the normal metabolic processes of the body.

The British actor Marty Feldmans unique eyes
were due to the fact he suffered from Graves
disease. Unfortunately this disease also led
to his death at an early age from a heart
attack.
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Neoplastic Disease

• Neoplastic diseases are the result of abnormal
  cell or uncontrolled cell growth.
• The abnormal cells grow and divide in other
  normal tissues and disrupt their normal function
  and starve them of nutrients that they need to
  survive.
• Cancers are all examples of
• this type of disease.

In England during 1800s there lived a man by the
name of Joseph Merrick who suffered from a
disease called Proteus syndrome. This disease
resulted in the abnormal growth of
the connective tissues (cartilage and bone) on
the right side of his body. He was so
grotesquely disfigured by the disease, that his
appearance frightened the public. He often wore
a hood over his head when in public and was
referred to as the Elephant Man.
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Body Levels of Organization
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Major Body Systems and Their Functions
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Anatomical Terminology

• We are organisms with bilateral symmetry. If our
  body were divided down the middle vertically, the
  right side is a mirror image of the left.
• The image shows a body in anatomical position.
  Face forward with palms turned out.

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Body Planes

• Our body can be divided because of our bilateral
  symmetry into 3 major separate planes
• Frontal or Coronal Plane Separates front surface
  (ventral, anterior) from the back surface
  (dorsal, posterior)
• Transverse Plane Separates upper body (superior)
  from the lower body (inferior)
• Mid-sagittal or Medial Plane Separates the
  right side of the body from the left side along
  the mid-line or the midsagittal line of the body.
• A fourth type of plane is a
• Sagittal or Paramidsagittal it is a
• plane that divides the body vertically either to
  the right or left of the midsagittal plane. It
  is not shown in this diagram

Medial or Midsagittal Plane
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Directional Terms

• Superior towards the
• upper body
• Inferior towards the
• lower body
• Proximal towards the
• point of origin
• Distal away from the
• point of origin
• Medial towards the middle
• Lateral towards the side
• Deep towards the inside of the body
• Superficial on the surface of the body

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Body Regions
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Abdominal Quadrants and Regions

• Upper right quadrant
• Upper left quadrant
• Lower right quadrant
• Lower left quadrant

• Right hypochondriac region
• Epigastric region
• Left hypochondriac region
• Right lumbar region
• Umbilical region
• Left lumbar region
• Right iliac or inguinal region
• Hypogastric or pubic region
• Left iliac or inguinal region

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Body Cavities