Observation

1
Observation

• Describing What You See

2
Observation

• Differs from Interviews in that in qualitative
  research it
• 1) Most often takes place in a natural setting.
• 2) The researcher is actually present to
  conduct the study.
• Formal process of conducting qualitative,
  observational research in natural settings can
  include interviews and document analysis. It is
  often referred to as fieldwork.

3
Merriman (1998) identifies four characteristics
of research-related observations.

• The observation is for a research purpose.
• Its planned in advanced.
• There is a system/method for recording the
  observation.
• There are methods for establishing
  reliability/validity/trustworthiness.

4
Observation includes all of the 5 senses

• Sight
• Hearing
• Taste
• Touch
• Smell
• Researchers feelings and/or descriptions of
  feelings of others are also important.

5
Using observation or interviews, in addition to
what we saw, we should collect information on

• What the participant did.
• The context of the behavior or action
• His or her appearance.
• Body language and affect ( how participants
  appeared to be feeling).
• The surrounding environment
• Interaction among two or more research subjects.
• Any conversations that took place.
• The researchers own conversations/interactions
  with the participants, especially those used to
  solicit more information.
• The researchers own reactions to the interview
  or observation

6
Other factors that might be important include

• Unplanned activities or events
• Symbolic meaning of words or actions
• Nonverbal communication (dress, use of space)
• Physical cues what does the setting tell you
  about what might happen or what has happened?
• What doesnt happen in that situation
• How does what happens differ from the
  researchers own experiences?
• Role of gender, ethnicity, social class etc. in
  interaction among participants or between
  research and participants

7
According to Neuman (2003), field researchers

• Observe every day activities and unusual
  occurrences.
• Become directly involved with the people studied.
• Learn to understand an insiders point of view
  while remaining an outsider.
• Use a variety of techniques and social skills as
  the situation requires.
• Produces data in the form of written notes,
  diagrams, maps, photos, audio-tape, or video.
• Sees events holistically and individually in
  their social contexts
• Develops empathy for participants
• Document both explicit and tacit (implicit,
  unspoken) aspects of the culture.
• Observes culture without imposing an outsiders
  point of view.

8
Problems that could occur in field

• Researcher may be frozen out or excluded.
• Setting may be unsafe.
• There may be conflicts among groups and
  individuals studied.
• Social breakdowns about what social rules should
  be applied in specific situations.

9
According to Neuman (2003), the observer
(especially) in ethnography benefits from

• The attitude of strangeness.
• Researcher confronts very different
  behaviors/assumptions about how things are done.
• This makes it easier to see cultural factors.
• It helps the researcher question and notice
  details.
• It also helps the researcher see things of which
  participants are not aware.

10
Richardson (2000 as cited in Montcalm Royse,
2002) identifies four types of notes you should
keep on your research.

• Observational notes description of what you
  saw, heard, and felt.
• Methodological notes what decisions did you
  make about doing the interview or observation and
  analyzing your data.
• Theoretical notes your initial impressions or
  hypotheses.
• Personal notes statements reflecting what you
  are thinking or feeling about your work.

11
Reliability/Validity (trustworthiness)

• Reliability are observations internally and
  externally consistent.
• Internally is the data plausible given what is
  known about an event. (Do pieces fit together)
• Externally can data be cross-checked with
  other sources.
• Validity Confidence placed in the researchers
  analysis and data do they accurately reflect
  what the researcher observed. Types include1)
  Degree to which what is observed corresponds with
  experiences of participants.
• 2) Does the researchers account of his or her
  methodological approach persuade others that
  research was conducted in an appropriate manner
  that allows for accuracy of findings.
• 3) Member validation/feedback loop. Do
  participants confirm the researchers account of
  what happened when the researcher tells them the
  results.
• 4) Ability of a nonmember to act effectively
  as a member or pass as one.